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IN  MEMORIAM 
Frederick  Slate 
Professor  of  Physics 


Composition-Rhetoric 

DESIGNED 

FOB    USE  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


FEED  :NrEWTON   SCOTT 

Junior  Professor  of  Ehetoric  in  the  University  of  Michigan 

AND 

JOSEPH  VILLIEES  DENNEY 

Professor  of  Ehetoric  and  English  Language  in  Ohio 
State  University 


ALLYN    AND    BACON 
Boston  anlr  Cl)tcag0 


Copyright,  1897,  by 
FRED  N.   SCOTT  and  JOSEPH   V.   DENNEY, 


Noriuoat  ^xtM 

J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith 

Norwood  Mam.  U.S.A. 


PREFACE. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  work  the  authors  have  been 
guided  by  three  considerations,  which  have  seemed  to  them 
to  be  of  fundamental  importance. 

First,  it  is  desirable  that  a  closer  union  than  has  pre- 
vailed hitherto  be  brought  about  between  secondary  com- 
position and  secondary  rhetoric.  That  rhetoric  in  the  high 
school  should  be  regarded  as  a  thing  apart  from  composi- 
tion, that  it  should  be  regarded  simply  as  a  "  course/'  to  be 
pursued  and  passed  and  put  out  of  remembrance  as  quickly 
as  possible,  is  not  good  either  for  rhetoric  or  for  composi- 
tion. In  this  book,  as  the  name  signifies,  no  such  apartness 
has  been  recognized.  The  rhetoric  which  is  found  in  this 
book  is  meant  to  be  the  theory  of  the  pupil's  practice, 
nothing  more,  —  the  explicit  statement  of  principles  which 
are  implicit  in  all  successful  elementary  composition.  If 
here  and  there  the  temptation  to  put  in  rhetorical  .furniture 
which  no  gentleman's  mind  should  be  without,  has  not  been 
wholly  thrust  aside,  such  temptation  has,  at  least,  been 
manfully  resisted.  To  this  let  the  treatment  of  figurative 
expressions  bear  witness. 

Second,  it  is  desirable  in  secondary  composition  that 
greater  use  be  made  of  the  paragraph  than  has  hitherto 
been  done  in  the  majority  of  schools.     The  idea  that  the 

iii 

9^595 


iv  Preface. 

paragraph  may  be  made  the  basis  of  a  systematic  method 
of  instruction  was  advanced  in  Paragraph  -  Writing  six  years 
ago.  Since  that  time  the  method  has  been  tested  in  many 
schools  under  a  variety  of  conditions,  and  has  found  its 
way  into  other  text-books.  The  authors  believe  that  in  the 
main  it  has  approved  itself  to  every  teacher  who  has  tried 
it  fairly,  and  acting  upon  this  belief  they  have  made  it  the 
central  idea  of  the  present  work.  They  would  call  atten- 
tion, however,  to  the  fact  that  a  considerable  proportion  of 
longer  compositions  —  descriptive,  narrative,  and  argument- 
ative—  are  provided  for  in  the  exercises,  the  necessary 
additional  theory  being  furnished  in  the  text  accompanying. 

A  third  idea  which  underlies  the  work  is  the  idea  of 
growth.  A  composition  is  regarded  not  as  a  dead  form,  to 
be  analyzed  into  its  component  parts,  but  as  a  living  prod- 
uct of  an  active,  creative  mind.  The  paragraph  is  com- 
pared to  a  plant,  springing  up  in  the  soil  of  the  mind  from 
a  germinal  idea,  and  in  the  course  of  its  development 
assuming  naturally  a  variety  of  forms. ^  This  kinetic  con- 
ception of  discourse,  besides  being  psychologically  more 
correct,  has  proved  to  be  practically  more  helpful  and 
inspiring  in  composition-classes  than  the  static  conception 
which  it.  is  intended  to  displace.  Where  it  has  been 
employed,  pupils  attempt  various  forms  of  self-expression 
with  greater  willingness  and  confidence,  and  their  efforts 
are  attended  with  greater  success. 

In  working  out  these  ideas,  care  has  been  taken  to  pro- 

1  For  a  similar  conception  of  judgment-forms,  see  the  Preface  to  Bosan- 
quet's  Logic,  Vol.  I,  p.  vii.  Mr.  Bosauquet  acknowledges  indebtedness  for 
the  idea  to  Mr.  Alfred  Robinson,  of  New  College,  Oxford. 


Preface, 

vide  illustrative  material  of  a  kind  that  should  be  thoug 
provoking,  interesting  and  valuable  in  itself,  but  not  1 
far  above  the  standard  of  literary  practice,  material  whi 
the  pupil  can  appreciate  readily  and  can  turn  to  accou 
at  once  in  his  own  written  work.     Many  of  the  exercises  a 
suggested  directly  by  the  selections  used  in  the  same  If 
sons,  and  may  be  attacked  by  the  pupil  without  furth 
help  than  that  given  in  the  text.     With  some  of  the  topic 
prescribed  for  class-room  compositions,  however,  it  will  t 
found  advantageous  to  hold  a  fifteen-minute  conversation 
lesson,  in  order  to  start  the  ideas  of  the  class  and  bring 
their  total   resources  to  light,  before  the  writing  begins. 
Care  has  also  been  taken  in  the  way  the  text  is  stated,  as 
well  as  in  the  way  the  exercises  are  presented,  to  suggest 
at  every  step  that  the  study  is  pursued  for  the  purpose  of 
acquiring  constructive  rather  than  critical  power,  and  the 
authors  venture  to  advise  that  until  chapter  four  is  reached 
minute  criticism  of  the  pupil's  written  work  be  avoided; 
let  the  criticisms  be  made  solely  with  reference  to  the  mat- 
ters treated  in  the  current  lesson,  and  to  bad  English  that 
may  be  used  by  the  pupil. 

The  attention  of  teachers  is  called  to  the  caret  and 
bracket  devices  used  in  the  later  chapters  of  this  book. 
These  devices  avoid  the  evil  of  putting  bad  English  before 
pupils,  and  compel  the  exercise  of  the  pupils'  judgment. 
Attention  is  also  called  to  the  fact  that  by  using  the 
method  of  marking  shown  in  Appendix  B,  pupils  will  be 
trained  to  correct  their  own  errors.  Persistence  in  this 
method,  it  is  believed,  will  beget  in  the  pupil  a  habit  of 
attention  to  his  writing,  a  habit  of  watchfulness,  an  ability 


Preface, 

^     correct  himself,  a  desire  for  self -improvement,  which  will 
't  beyond  his  school  days. 

s 

The  following  books  and  articles  are  recommended  iis 
ing  helpful  to  the  teachers  of  English  in  secondary 
hools.  Titles  that  are  marked  with  an  asterisk  are 
lapted  to  the  pupil  as  well  as  to  the  teacher,  and  may  be 
isigned  as  collateral  reading. 

Aristotle.     Rhetoric.     Welldon's  Translation.     Macmillan. 

Bain.     English  Composition  and  Rhetoric.     2  vols.     Appleton. 
^Bainton.     Art  of  Authorship.     Appleton. 

Baker.     Principles  of  Argumentation.     Ginn. 
*Baker.     Specimens  of  Argument.     Holt. 
*Baldwin.     Specimens  of  Prose  Description.     Holt. 
*Bates.     Talks  on  Writing  English.     Houghton. 
*Brewster.     Specimens  of  Narrative.     Holt. 

Brewster.     Studies  in  Structure  and  Style.     Macmillan. 

Buck.     Figures  of  Rhetoric  :  a  Psychological  Study.     (Contributions 
to  Rhetorical  Theory,  edited  by  F.  N.  Scott.     No.  1.) 

Campbell.     Philosophy  of  Rhetoric.     Harper. 

Carpenter.     Exercises  in  Rhetoric.    Advanced  Course,    Macmillan. 
*Carpenter.    Exercises  in  Rhetoric.  High  School  Course.   Macmillan. 

Coleridge.     Style. 

De  Qdincey.     Essays  on  Style,  Rhetoric,  and  Language.     AUyn  & 
Bacon. 

Emerson.     History  of  the  English  Language.     Macmillan. 

Fletcher  and  Carpenter.    Introduction  to  Theme- Writing.    Allyn 
&.  Bacon. 
*Genung.     Outlines  of  Rhetoric.     Ginn. 
*Genung.     Practical  Rhetoric.     Ginn. 
*Hale.     Constructive  Rhetoric.     Holt. 
*Hart.     a  Handbook  of  English  Composition.     Eldredge. 
*Higgins'on.     Hints  on  Writing  and  Speecli-making.    Lee  «&  Shepard. 
*HiLL,  A.  S.     Foundations  of  Rhetoric.     Harper. 
*HiLL,  A.  S.   '  Principles  of  Rhetoric.     Harper. 

Hill,  D.  J.     Science  of  Rhetoric.     Sheldon. 

Jebb.     '  Rhetoric'     Encycl.  Brit.    9th  Ed. 


Preface,  vii 

Jespersen.     Progress  in  Language.     Sonnenschein. 
*Keeler  and   Davis.     Studies   in   English   Composition.     AUyn   & 

Bacon. 
*Lamoxt.     Specimens  of  Exposition.     Holt. 

Lewes.     Principles  of  Success  in  Literature.     Allyn  &  Bacon. 

Lewis.     The  History  of  the  English  Paragraph.     Univ.  of  Chicago 
Press. 

McElroy.     Structure  of  English  Prose.     Armstrong. 
*MiNTO.     Manual  of  English  Prose  Literature.     Ginn. 
*MiNTO.     Plain  Principles  of  Prose  Composition.     Blackwood. 
^Newcomer.     A  Practical  Course  in  English  Composition.     Ginn. 

Pater.     Literary  Style.     Macmillan. 

Paul.     Principles  of  the  History  of  Language.     Macmillan. 

QuiNTiLiAN.     Institutes  of  Oratory.     Bohn  Library. 

Renton.     Logic  of  Style.     Longmans. 
*Saintsbury.     Miscellaneous  Essays,     pp.  1-4L     Scribner's. 
*ScoTT  and  Denney.     Paragraph- Writing.     Allyn  &  Bacon. 

Sherman.     Analytics  of  Literature.     Ginn. 

Spencer.     Philosophy  of  Style.     Allyn  &  Bacon. 

Stevenson.     Style   in   Literature.      Contemporary   Magazine,    Vol. 
XLVII,  p.  548. 

Symonds.     Essays,  Speculative   and   Suggestive.      Vol.   I,   p.   256 ; 
Vol.  II,  p.  1. 
*Wendell.    English  Composition.     Scribner's. 

Whately.     Elements  of  Rhetoric.     Sheldon. 

Cairns.     The  Forms  of  Discourse.     Ginn. 

Hinsdale.     Teaching  the  Language- Arts.     Appleton. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   SECOND   EDITION 

In  response  to  an  earnest  desire,  persuasively  expressed,  on  the  part 
of  certain  teachers  of  English,  there  is  added  to  this  edition  an  Appendix 
containing  a  brief  treatment  of  the  Types  of  Discourse  (condensed  from 
Paragraph- Writing),  of  Figures  of  Speech,  and  of  Poetry.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  the  authors,  however,  that  between  the  matter  of  this  Appen- 
dix and  the  original  plan  of  the  work  the  connection  is  very  slight. 
They  trust  that  no  secondary  teacher  will  teach  these  things  to  his 
pupils  as  a  substitute  for  exercises  in  composition. 

May,  1898. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/compositionrhetoOOscotrich 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   I.      External  Form  of  the  Paragraph. 

PAGE 

Lesson    1.     The  Sentence-Group 1 

Lesson    2.     Indention 5 

Lesson    3.     Faults  of  Indention  :  Indenting  Every  Sentence       .  7 

Lesson  4.  Faults  of  Indention  :  Indentions  too  Few  .  .  11 
Lesson    6.    Faults    of    Indention :    Indentions    Irregular    and 

Meaningless 17 

Lesson    6.     Other  Uses  of  Indention 26 

CHAPTER   II.     Paragraph-Structure. 

Lesson    7.    Thought-Divisions 30 

CHAPTER   III.     What  to  Say. 

Lesson    8.     Selecting  a  Subject 41 

Lesson    9.     The  Paragraph- Theme 42 

Lesson  10.    The  Title 46 

Lesson  11.     The  Topic-Sentence 52 

Lesson  12.     How  Paragraphs  Grow — Repetition          ...  72 
Lesson  13.     How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Particulars  and  Details     .  79 
Lesson  14.     How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Specific  Instances  or  Ex- 
amples       87 

Lesson  15.  How  Paragraphs  Grow — Comparisons  and  Analogies  92 
Lesson  16.     How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Telling  what  a  Thing  is 

not 99 

Lesson  17.  How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Contrasts  ....  103 
Lesson  18.  How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Cause  and  Effect  .  .110 
Lesson  19.  How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Proofs  .  .  .  .117 
Lesson  20.     How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Combination  of  Two  or 

More  Methods 123 

ix 


Contents. 


CHAPTER  IV.     How  to  Say  It. 

Lesson  21.  Short  Sentences  and  their  Uses 

Lesson  22.  Long  Sentences  and  their  Uses  . 

Lesson  23.  Uses  of  the  Loose  Sentence 

Lesson  24.  Uses  of  the  Periodic  Sentence     . 

Lesson  25.  Uses  of  the  Balanced  Sentence  . 

Lesson  26.  Combinations  of  Sentence- Types 

Lesson  27.  Choice  of  Expression  . 

Lesson  28.  Imaginative  Expressions     . 


PAGE 

134 
151 
161 
175 
188 
194 
205 
219 


CHAPTER   V.     In  What  Order  to  Say  It. 

Lesson  29.  Antithesis  and  Climax         .... 

Lesson  30.  The  Logical  Order 

Lesson  31.  The  Time  Order  and  the  Space  Order 

Lesson  32.  Sentence-Order  for  Clearness  and  Emphasis 


231 
241 
246 
257 


CHAPTER   VL     How  Much  to  Say. 

Lesson  33.    Scale  of  Treatment 269 

Lesson  34.    Proportion  of  Parts 281 

Lesson  35.     Subordination  of  Parts 291 

Lesson  36.    Expansion 297 

Lesson  37.     Condensation ,        ,        .  306 

CHAPTER  VII.     What  Not  to  Say 

Lesson  38.     Digressions 314 

Lesson  39.     Incoherence 323 


Appendix  A.     Directions  for  Preparing  Manuscript    .        .        .  339 

Appendix  B.     Marks  Used  in  Correcting 342 

Appendix  C.     Material  for  Analysis  and  Reproduction      .        .  349 

Appendix  D.     Subjects  for  Essays 361 

Appendix  E.     Capitals,  Punctuation,  etc 368 

Appendix  F.     I.  Types  of  Discourse 371 

II.  Figures  of  Speech .382 

III.  Poetry 390 

Index 403 


COMPOSITION-KHETORIC. 

CHAPTER   I. 

EXTERNAL   FORM   OF   THE    PARAGRAPH. 

LESSON   L 

The  Sentence-Group. 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  we  may  write  an  essay  or 
any  other  kind  of  composition.  One  way  is  to  write  it 
sentence  by  sentence.  A  person  who  composes  in  this  way 
usually  begins  writing  before  he  has  given  his  subject  very 
much  consideration.  A  sentence  comes  by  chance  into  his 
mind.  He  traces  it  on  the  paper  before  him.  The  first  sen- 
tence suggests  a  second,  which  also  he  writes  down.  The 
second  suggests  a  third,  the  third  a  fourth,  and  so  on  to  the 
end  of  the  composition.  This  is  one  way,  and  a  common 
way,  of  composing,  but  it  is  not  a  good  way. 

A  better  way  is  to  compose,  not  sentence  by  sentence, 
but  sentence-group  by  sentence-group.  When  a  writer  com- 
poses in  this  way,  he  does  not  begin  with  a  single  sentence, 
but  with  a  series  or  train  of  sentences.  Before  putting  pen 
to  paper  he  thinks  out  carefully  the  topics  on  which  he 
means  to  write,  and  arranges  them  in  the  order  in  which 
he  means  to  treat  them.     Then  as  soon  as  he  takes  up  his 

1 


2  Composition-Rhetoric, 

pen  to  write,  this  is  what  happens :  a  succession  of  sen- 
tences or  of  ideas  for  sentences,  bearing  upon  the  topic  to 
be  treated  first,  pass  rapidly  through  his  mind.  They  seem 
to  flow  or  to  grow  naturally  out  of  the  topic,  as  naturally 
as  water  flows  from  a  spring  or  a  vine  grows  from  a  seed. 
When  he  has  written  these  sentences  down,  there  arises  in 
his  mind  another  series  of  sentences  upon  a  second  topic ; 
and  this  process  goes  on  until  the  essay  is  completed. 

One  or  two  familiar  illustrations  will  help  to  make  clear 
what  has  been  said  about  this  second  method  of  composing. 

A  school-boy,  let  us  suppose,  is  writing  to  a  friend  about 
his  plans  for  the  summer  vacation.  The  first  thing  he  means 
to  do  is  to;n>ake'a  trip  on  foot  through  some  parts  of  the 
•  White  "^Mountains.  Then  he  will  go  to  Portland,  and  join 
-:^  party  on  i)Oi^.rd  of  a  yacht,  with  whom  he  will  go  to 
'Ba;r  Harbor.  After  a  short  stay  at  Bar  Harbor,  he  will 
return  to  Portland  by  steamer  and  to  his  home  by  the  rail- 
road. If  now  he  has  given  the  subject  some  thought  so  that 
he  knows  just  what  he  wants  to  say,  there  will  come  into 
his  mind  when  he  begins  to  write,  not  one  sentence  alone, 
nor  odds  and  ends  of  sentences  from  various  parts  of  the 
letter  that  is  to  be,  but  instead  a  chain  or  train  of  sentence- 
ideas  bearing  upon  the  topic  he  intends  to  treat  first. 
Perhaps  they  will  be  something  like  this :  "  Start  from  De- 
troit July  1  .  .  .  Excursion  at  low  rates  .  .  .  Leave  train 
at  Fabyan's  ...  A  week  in  the  White  Mountains  .  .  .  Up 
Mt.  Washington  on  foot  .  .  .  Catch  trout  in  the  Saco  .  .  . 
Train  to  Portland."  When  the  sentences  for  which  these 
skeleton  sentences  stand  have  been  put  on  paper,  another  set 
will  come  into  his  mind  touching  the  yachting  trip  to  Bar 
Harbor ;  and  so  on  until  the  letter  is  completed. 

To  take  another  illustration,  suppose  that  some  one  has 
just  examined  with  great  interest  a  remarkable  bust  of  Emer- 
son. He  has  seen  it  in  a  studio  and  has  talked  with  the 
sculptor  about  it.     The  sculptor  has  told  him  that  one  side 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph,  3 

of  Emerson's  face  looks  like  the  profile  of  a  Yankee  and 
that  the  other  side  looks  like  the  profile  of  a  Greek.  If 
now  he  sits  down  to  write  to  a  friend  a  brief  account  of  his 
visit  to  the  studio,  he  will  not  think  merely,  "  I  saw  to-day 
a  fine  bust  of  Emerson/'  or,  "  I  went  to-day  to  a  sculptor's 
studio,"  but  something  like  the  following :  "  Visited  a  studio 
.  .  .  Saw  fine  bust  of  Emerson  .  .  .  Talked  with  sculptor 
.  .  .  Sculptor  said  sides  of  face  different  ,  .  .  One  side 
Yankee,  the  other  side  Greek  .  .  .  Said  Emerson  combined 
two  natures,  the  modern  and  the  classical."  Just  as  in  the 
first  illustration,  these  skeletons  of  sentences,  or  pictures 
that  answer  to  them,  will  race  through  his  mind,  before  he 
writes  a  single  word.  If  his  mind  works  as  it  should,  they 
will  pass  in  just  the  order  in  which  he  wants  to  write  them. 
Written  in  the  manner  suggested  by  these  illustrations, 
a  composition  will  consist  of  a  group,  or  of  groups,  of  closely 
connected  sentences. 

A  good  writer  thinks  a  group  of  sentences  upon  one  topic  before 
lie  writes  the  separate  sentences  which  go  to  make  up  the  group-^ 
Such  sentence-groups  we  shall  call  paragraphs.  A  paragraph  may 
be  a  whole  composition,  or  it  may  be  a  part  of  a  whole  composition, 

It  is  these  groups  of  sentences  that  we  purpose  studying 
in  this  book. 

EXERCISE  1. 

Select  one  of  the  following  questions.  Think  about  it 
until  you  know  just  how  you  will  answer  it.     Write  the 

1  This  view  is  corroborated  by  the  recent  researches  of  Dr.  E.  H.  Lewis, 
set  forth  in  the  pamphlet  entitled  History  of  the  English  Paragraph 
(Chicago  :  1894)  ;  see  especially  p.  172 :  "  There  has  been,  from  the  earliest 
days  of  our  prose,  a  unit  of  invention  much  larger  than  the  modern  sen- 
tence, and  always  separated,  in  the  mind  of  the  writer,  from  the  sentenco- 
unit,  of  whatever  length.  In  other  words,  English  writers  have  thought 
roughly  in  long  stages  before  they  have  analyzed  such  stages  into  smaller 
steps." 


4  Composition' Rhetoric, 

answer  in  full.  At  each  point  in  your  writing  where  you 
are  compelled  to  pause  in  order  to  think  what  comes  next, 
insert  a  sign  like  this :  IT.  When  you  have  finished,  note 
how  many  sentences  and  parts  of  sentences  have  been 
written  without  pausing. 

1.  How  does  the  inside  of  your  hand  differ  from  the 
other  side  ? 

2.  What  does  a  photographer  do  in  taking  a  person's 
picture  ? 

3.  What  do  you  see  in  mind  when  you  read  the  words 
^Bunker  Hill'? 

4.  What  would  happen  in  the  school-room  if  some  one 
outside  should  suddenly  cry,  '  The  school-house  is  on  fire ! '  ? 

5.  What  did  you  do  in  the  algebra  recitation  yesterday  ? 

6.  What  do  you  think  of  and  see  when  the  words  ^  Sunday 
school '  are  pronounced  ? 

7.  How  did  the  tramp  look  who  came  to  your  home,  and 
what  did  he  say  ? 

8.  What  is  suggested  to  you  by  the  following  sentence, 
*  Never  give  up  the  ship  ! '  ? 

9.  What  is  suggested  to  you  by  the  following  sentence, 
'  He  sought  the  Fountain  of  Youth '  ? 

10.  How  is  the  tire  of  a  bicycle  repaired  when  it  has  been 
punctured  ? 

11.  How  does  a  baseball  pitcher  throw  a  ball  so  as  to 
make  it  curve  ? 

12.  What  do  you  see  in  mind  when  you  read  the  words, 
'  Boston  Tea  Party '  ? 

If  you  were  asked  to  write  again  on  the  same  question, 
could  you  add  anything  to  any  part  of  what  you  have  writ- 
ten ?  Where  would  the  new  material  best  be  brought  in  ? 
Can  you  improve  what  you  have  written  ?  Try  again,  and 
bring  both  your  first  and  your  second  effort  to  the  class. 
Be  ready  to  tell  why  you  made  additions  to  or  changes  in  your 
first  writing. 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph, 


LESSON  2. 

Indention. 

To  indicate  to  the  reader's  eye  the  sentence-groups  of  a 
composition,  a  device  is  employed  known  as  indention. 
The  nature  of  this  device  may  be  illustrated  by  printing 
side  by  side  two  arrangements  of  the  same  matter,  as  in  the 
parallel  columns  below.  The  column  on  the  left  is  indented 
at  three  points,  that  on  the  right  has  no  indentions. 


1.  It  was  delightful  in  the 
country,  for  Summer  was  in  the 
height  of  its  splendor.  2.  The 
corn  was  yellow,  the  oats  green, 
the  hay,  heaped  into  cocks  in 
the  meadow  below,  looked  like 
little  grass  hillocks ;  and  the 
stork  strutted  about  on  its  long, 
red  legs,  chattering  Egyptian, 
for  that  was  the  language  it 
had  learned  from  its  mother. 

3.  The  fields  and  meadows 
were  surrounded  by  more  or 
less  thickly  wooded  forests, 
which  also  enclosed  deep  lakes, 
the  smooth  waters  of  which 
were  sometimes  ruffled  by  a 
gentle  breeze.  4.  It  was,  in- 
deed, delightful  in  the  country. 

5.  In  the  bright  sunshine 
stood  an  old  mansion  surrounded 
by  a  moat  and  wall,  strong  and 
proud  almost  as  in  the  feudal 
times.  6.  From  the  wall  all  the 
way  down  to  the  water  grew 
a  complete  forest  of  burdock 
leaves,  which  were  so  high  that  a 


1.  It  was  delightful  in  the  coun- 
try, for  Summer  was  in  the 
height  of  its  splendor.  2.  The 
corn  was  yellow,  the  oats  green, 
the  hay,  heaped  into  cocks  in 
the  meadow  below,  looked  like 
little  grass  hillocks ;  and  the 
stork  strutted  about  on  its  long, 
red  legs,  chattering  Egyptian, 
for  that  was  the  language  it 
had  learned  from  its  mother. 
3.  The  fields  and  meadows  were 
surrounded  by  more  or  .less 
thickly  wooded  forests,  which 
also  enclosed  deep  lakes,  the 
smooth  waters  of  which  were 
sometimes  ruffled  by  a  gentle 
breeze.  4.  It  was,  indeed,  de- 
lightful in  the  country.  5.  In 
the  bright  sunshine  stood  an 
old  mansion  surrounded  by  a 
moat  and  wall,  strong  and 
proud  almost  as  in  the  feudal 
times.  6.  From  the  wall  all  the 
way  down  to  the  water  grew 
a  complete  forest  of  burdock 
leaves,  which  were  so  high  that 


6 


Composition-Rhetoric, 


little  child  could  stand  upright 
among  them.  7.  It  was  a  real 
wilderness,  so  quiet  and  sombre, 
and  here  sat  a  Duck  upon  her 
nest  hatching  a  quantity  of 
eggs ;  but  she  was  almost  tired 
of  her  tedious  though  important 
occupation,  for  it  lasted  so  very 
long  and  she  seldom  had  any 
visitors.  8.  The  other  ducks 
preferred  swimming  about  on 
the  moat,  and  the  canals  that 
ran  through  the  garden,  to 
visiting  her  in  her  solitude. — 
Andersen. 


a  little  child  could  stand  up- 
right among  them.  7.  It  was  a 
real  wilderness,  so  quiet  and 
sombre,  and  here  sat  a  Duck 
upon  her  nest  hatching  a  quan- 
tity of  eggs  ;  but  she  was  almost 
tired  of  her  tedious  though  im- 
portant occupation,  for  it  lasted 
so  very  long,  and  she  seldom 
had  any  visitors.  8.  The  other 
ducks  preferred  swimming  about 
on  the  moat,  and  the  canals  that 
ran  through  the  garden,  to  vis- 
iting her  in  her  solitude. 


The  term  "  indention  "  refers  to  the  position  of  the  first 
word  in  a  sentence.  If  such  a  word  begins  at  the  left  margin 
like  the  word  "  It ''  in  sentence  1,  on  the  right,  or  if  it  fol- 
lows directly  after  the  close  of  a  preceding  sentence,  like  the 
word  "The"  at  the  beginning  of  sentences  2  and  8  in 
the  same  column,  the  word  and  the  sentence  it  begins  are 
said  not  to  be  indented.  But  if  the  first  word  of  a  sentence 
begins  a  little  way  to  the  right  of  the  margin,  as  the  word 
"  It "  (sentence  1),  the  word  "'  The ''  (sentence  3),  and  the 
word  "  In  "  (sentence  5),  in  the  left-hand  column,  the  word 
and  the  sentence  it  begins  are  said  to  be  indented. 

A  group  of  related  sentences  making  up  a  paragraph  is 
marked  as  such,  and  is  separated  from  other  similar  groups 
by  an  indention  of  the  first  word.  In  the  foregoing  selec- 
tion the  sentences  in  the  left-hand  column  are  by  indention 
made  into  three  groups.  The  first  paragraph  consists  of 
sentences  1  and  2 ;  the  second  of  sentences  3  and  4 ;  the 
third  of  sentences  5-8.  Note  the  appearance  of  each  para- 
graph :  it  seems  to  be  a  solid  block  of  type ;  the  various 
sentences  of  which  it  is  composed  look  as  if  they  belonged 
together. 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph.  7 

A  word  is  indented  when  it  is  begun  to  the  right  of  the  margin. 
The  first  word  of  a  paragraph  should  always  be  indented. 

In  printed  matter,  the  indention  is  usually  slight.  It  is 
of  the  width  of  the  letter  m  of  the  type  in  which  the  mat- 
ter is  set,  or  of  the  letters  m  and  n  put  together.  In  manu- 
script the  indention  should  be  wider.  The  beginner  should 
make  a  practice  of  indenting  at  least  one  inch. 

In  printed  books  the  first  word  of  a  chapter  is  frequently 
unindented. 


LESSON  3. 

Faults  of  Indention :    Indenting  Every  Sentence. 

A  common  fault  in  the  use  of  indention  ma}^  be  illustrated 
by  again  putting  side  by  side  two  arrangements  of  the  same 
selection :  — 


Once  upon  a  time,  a  notion 
was  started,  that  if  all  the  peo- 
ple in  the  world  would  shout  at 
once,  it  might  be  heard  in  the 
moon.  So  the  projectors  agreed 
it  should  be  done  in  just  ten 
years.  Some  thousand  ship- 
loads of  chronometers  were  dis- 
tributed to  the  selectmen  and 
other  great  folks  of  all  the 
different  nations.  For  a  year 
beforehand,  nothing  else  was 
talked  about  but  the  awful 
noise  that  was  to  be  made  on 
the  great  occasion.  When  the 
time  came,  everybody  had  his 
ears  so  wide  open,  to  hear  the 
universal  ejaculation  of  Boo,  — 
the  word   agreed   upon,  —  that 


Once  upon  a  time,  a  notion 
was  started,  that  if  all  the  peo- 
ple in  the  world  would  shout  at 
once,  it  might  be  heard  in  the 
moon. 

So  the  projectors  agreed  it 
should  be  done  in  just  ten 
years. 

Some  thousand  shiploads  of 
chronometers  were  distributed 
to  the  selectmen  and  other 
great  folks  of  all  the  different 
nations. 

For  a  year  beforehand,  noth- 
ing else  was  talked  about  but 
the  awful  noise  that  was  to  be 
made  on  the  great  occasion. 

When  the  time  came,  every- 
body had  his  ears  so  wide  open 


8 


Composition- Mhetoric, 


nobody  spoke  except  a  deaf 
man  in  one  of  the  Fiji  Islands, 
and  a  woman  in  Pekin,  so  that 
'  the  world  was  never  so  still 
since  the  creation.  —  Holmes. 


to  hear  the  universal  ejacula- 
tion of  Boo,  —  the  word  agreed 
upon,  —  that  nobody  spoke  ex- 
cept a  deaf  man  in  one  of  the 
Fiji  Islands,  and  a  woman  in 
Pekin,  so  that  the  w^orld  was 
never  so  still  since  the  creation. 


The  arrangement  in  the  left-hand  column  is  preferable. 
It  gives  us  an  impression  that  the  sentences  belong  together, 
that  is,  it  gives  us  a  true  impression ;  whereas  the  arrange- 
ment in  the  right-hand  column  gives  us  an  impression  that 
the  sentences  are  independent,  that  is,  it  gives  us  a  false 
impression. 

Almost  primeval  simplicity  reigns  over  this  Northern  land, — 
almost  primeval  solitude  and  stillness. 

You  pass  out  from  the  gate  of  the  city,  and,  as  if  by  magic,  the 
scene  changes  to  a  wild,  woodland  landscape. 

Around  you  are  forests  of  fir. 

Overhead  hang  the  long  fan-like  branches  trailing  with  moss, 
and  heavy  with  red  and  blue  cones. 

Underfoot  is  a  carpet  of  yellow  leaves,  and  the  air  is  warm  and 
balmy. 

On  a  wooden  bridge  you  cross  a  little  silver  stream. 

Anon  you  come  forth  into  a  pleasant  and  sunny  land  of  farms. 

Wooden  fences  divide  the  adjoining  fields. 

Across  the  road  are  gates,  which  are  opened  for  you  by  troops 
of  flaxen-haired  children. 

The  peasants  take  off  their  hats  as  you  pass. 

You  sneeze,  and  they  cry,  "  God  bless  you !  " 

The  houses  in  the  villages  and  smaller  cities  are  all  built  of 
hewn  timber,  and  for  the  most  part  painted  red. 

The  floors  of  the  taverns  are  strewn  with  the  fragrant  tips  of  fir 
boughs. 

In  many  villages  there  are  no  taverns,  and  the  peasants  take 
turns  in  receiving  travellers. 

The  thrifty  housewife  shows  you  into  the  best  chamber,  the 
walls  of  which  are  hung  round  with  rude  pictures  from  the  Bible ; 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph,  9 

and  brings  you  her  heavy  silver  spoons  —  an  heirloom  —  to  dip  tho 
curdled  milk  from  the  pan. 

You  have  oaten  cakes  baked  some  months  before ;  or  bread  with 
anise-seed  and  coriander  in  it,  and  perhaps  a  little  pine-bark.  — 
Longfellow:  Driftwood,  318. 

Printed  as  it  appears  above,  with  each  sentence  separated 
by  indention  from  its  neighbor,  the  selection  seems  jagged 
and  disjointed.  Re-write  it,  indenting  only  the  first  word, 
and  now^  observe  how  smoothly  each  sentence  flows  into 
the  sentence  that  follows,  and  how  compact  and  orderly 
the  selection  appears  and  is. 

Beware  of  separating  by  indentions  sentences  that  belong  together. 


EXERCISE  2. 

Re- write  the  following  selections.  Combine  the  sentences 
of  each,  group  without  changing  the  wording,  or  adding  any 
words,  and  note  the  difference  in  effect,  and  the  greater  ease 
of  understanding. 

Twenty  years  had  passed  since  Joey  ran  down  the  brae  to  play. 

Jess,  his  mother,  shook  her  staff  fondly  at  him. 

A  cart  rumbled  by,  the  driver  nodding  on  the  shaft. 

It  rounded  the  corner  and  stopped  suddenly,  and  then  a  woman 
screamed. 

A  handful  of  men  carried  Joey's  dead  body  to  his  mother,  and 
that  was  the  tragedy  of  Jess's  life.  —  Barrie  :  A  Windorv  in 
Thrums. 

[As  written  above,  the  third  and  fourth  sentences  do  not  seem  to 
have  any  connection,  in  thought,  with  what  precedes  and  follows. 
Close  up  the  indentions,  and  the  whole  paragraph  becomes  an  intelli- 
gible picture.  ] 

I  used  to  imagine  my  mind  a  room  in  confusion,  and  I  was  to 
put  it  in  order ;  so  I  swept  out  useless  thoughts  and  dusted  foolish 
fancies  away,  and  furnished  it  with  good  resolutions  and  began 
again. 


10  Composition-Rhetoric, 

But  cobwebs  get  in. 

I'm  not  a  good  housekeeper,  and  never  get  my  room  in  nice  order. 

I  once  wrote  a  poem  about  it  when  I  was  fourteen,  and  called  it 
"  My  Little  Kingdom." 

It  is  still  hard  to  rule  it,  and  always  will  be,  I  think.  —  Louisa 
May  Alcott  :  Life^  Letters,  and  Journals. 

[As  written  above,  the  connection  of  the  thought  is  hard  to  keep. 
Close  up  the  indentions,  and  it  becomes  clear  that  the  words  "  cob- 
webs," "  housekeeper,"  "  room,"  "kingdom,"  and  "rule,"  in  the  dif- 
ferent sentences,  all  refer  to  the  mind  or  the  care  one  should  give  it.] 

EXERCISE  3. 

On  one  of  the  following  topics  write  a  single  paragraph  of 
one  or  two  pages.  Indent  the  first  word  one  inch.  Except 
at  the  close  of  the  paragraph,  beware  of  leaving  a  noticeable 
blank  space  at  the  end  of  a  sentence.^ 

1.  An  incident  in  the  recitation  room. 

2.  The  principal  cause  of  the  American  Eevolntion. 

3.  How  to  tell  an  oak  leaf  from  a  maple  leaf. 

4.  Direct  a  stranger  at  the  railway  station  to  the  high- 
school  building,  describing  the  building  so  that  he  would 
know  it  when  he  reached  it. 

5.  One  result  of  the  Civil  War. 

6.  The  source  of  the  water  supply  of  this  city. 

7.  How  does  a  bank  make  any  money  ? 

8.  How  I  usually  spend  Saturday. 

9.  The  way  I  used  to  make  a  kite. 

10.  The  appearance  of  the  school-house  from  the  street. 

11.  Learning  to  ride  a  bicycle. 

12.  The  story  of  King  Midas. 

13.  The  story  of  King  Eobert  of  Sicily. 

14.  General  Howe  and.  the  Boston  boys. 

1  For  directions  in  regard  to  the  preparation  of  the  manuscript,  see 
Appendix  A.  For  the  meaning  of  the  signs  used  by  your  teacher  in  cor- 
recting what  you  write,  see  Appendix  B. 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph.  11 

LESSON  4. 

Faults  of  Indention:    Indentions  too  Few. 

1.  In  a  preceding  paper  I  have  spoken  of  an  English  Sunday 
in  the  country,  and  its  tranquillizing  effect  upon  the  landscape  ; 
but  where  is  its  sacred  influence  more  strikingly  apparent  than 
in  the  very  heart  of  that  great  Babel,  London  ?  2.  On  this  sacred 
day,  the  gigantic  monster  is  charmed  into  repose.  3.  The  intol- 
erable din  and  struggle  of  the  week  are  at  an  end.  4.  The  shops 
are  shut.  5.  The  fires  of  forges  and  manufactories  are  extin- 
guished; and  the  sun,  no  longer  obscured  by  murky  clouds  of 
smoke,  pours  down  a  sober,  yellow  radiance  into  the  quiet  streets. 
6.  The  few  pedestrians  we  meet,  instead  of  hurrying  forward 
with  anxious  countenances,  move  leisurely  along ;  their  brows  are 
smoothed  from  the  wrinkles  of  business  and  care ;  they  have  put 
on  their  Sunday  looks,  and  Sunday  manners,  with  their  Sunday 
clothes,  and  are  cleansed  in  mind  as  well  as  in  person.  7.  And 
now  the  melodious  clangor  of  bells  from  church  towers  summons 
their  various  flocks  to  the  fold.  8.  Forth  issues  from  his  mansion 
the  family  of  the  decent  tradesman,  the  small  children  in  advance ; 
then  the  citizen  and  his  comely  spouse,  followed  by  the  grown-up 
daughters,  with  small  morocco-bound  prayer-books  laid  in  the 
folds  of  their  pocket-handkerchiefs.  9.  The  housemaid  looks  after 
them  from  the  window,  admiring  the  finery  of  the  family,  and 
receiving,  perhaps,  a  nod  and  smile  from  her  young  mistresses,  at 
whose  toilet  she  has  assisted.  10.  Now  rumbles  along  the  carriage 
of  some  magnate  of  the  city,  peradventure  an  alderman  or  a  sheriff; 
and  now  the  patter  of  many  feet  announces  a  procession  of  charity 
scholars,  in  uniforms  of  antique  cut,  and  each  with  a  prayer-book 
under  his  arm.  11.  The  ringing  of  bells  is  at  an  end ;  the  rumbling 
of  the  carriage  has  ceased ;  the  pattering  of  feet  is  heard  no  more ; 
the  flocks  are  folded  in  ancient  churches,  cramped  up  in  by-lanes 
and  corners  of  the  crowded  city,  where  the  vigilant  beadle  keeps 
watch,  like  the  shepherd's  dog,  round  the  threshold  of  the  sanct- 
uary. 12.  For  a  time  everything  is  hushed ;  but  soon  is  heard 
the  deep,  pervading  sound  of  the  organ,  rolling  and  vibrating 
through  the  empty  lanes  and  courts ;  and  the  sweet  chanting  of 


12  Composition-Rhetoric. 

the  choir  making  them  resound  with  melody  and  praise.  13.  ISTevei 
have  I  been  more  sensible  of  the  sanctifying  effect  of  church  music 
than  when  I  have  heard  it  thus  poured  forth,  like  a  river  of  joy, 
through  the  inmost  recesses  of  this  great  metropolis,  elevating  it, 
as  it  were,  from  all  the  sordid  pollutions  of  the  week ;  and  bearing 
the  poor  world-w^orn  soul  on  a  tide  of  triumphant  harmony  to 
heaven.  14.  The  morning  service  is  at  an  end.  15.  The  streets  are 
again  alive  with  the  congregations  returning  to  their  homes,  but 
soon  again  relapse  into  silence.  16.  N'ow  comes  on  the  Sunday 
dinner,  which,  to  the  city  tradesman,  is  a  meal  of  some  importance. 

17.  There   is   more   leisure  for  social  enjoyment   at   the   board. 

18.  Members  of  the  family  can  now  gather  together,  who  are 
separated  by  the  laborious  occupations  of  the  week.  19.  A  school- 
boy may  be  permitted  on  that  day  to  come  to  the  paternal  home ; 
an  old  friend  of  the  family  takes  his  accustomed  Sunday  seat  at 
the  board,  tells  over  his  well-known  stories,  and  rejoices  young 
and  old  with  his  well-known  jokes.  20.  On  Sunday  afternoon 
the  city  pours  forth  its  legions  to  breathe  the  fresh  air  and  enjoy 
the  sunshine  of  the  parks  and  rural  environs.  21.  Satirists  may 
say  what  they  please  about  the  rural  enjoyments  of  a  London 
citizen  on  Sunday,  but  to  me  there  is  something  delightful  in 
beholding  the  poor  prisoner  of  the  crowded  and  dusty  city  enabled 
thus  to  come  forth  once  a  week  and  throw  himself  upon  the  green 
bosom  of  nature.  22.  He  is  like  a  child  restored  to  the  mother's 
breast ;  and  they  who  first  spread  out  these  noble  parks  and  mag- 
nificent pleasure-grounds  w^hich  surround  this  huge  metropolis, 
have  done  at  least  as  much  for  its  health  and  morality,  as  if  they 
had  expended  the  amount  of  cost  in  hospitals,  prisons,  and  peni- 
tentiaries. —  Irving  :  Sketch  Book. 

The  pupil  should  make  himself  familiar  with  this  selec- 
tion by  reading  it  a  number  of  times.  Let  him  then  note 
the  connection  of  the  sentences.  Certain  sentences,  he  will 
observe,  treat  of  one  part  of  the  subject ;  certain  others  treat 
of  another  part.  Thus,  sentences  1-6  speak  in  general  terms 
of  the  Sunday  aspect  of  the  city.  These  sentences,  belong- 
ing together  in  thought,  should  form  a  single  paragraph. 
Sentences  7-10  speak  of  the  appearance  of  the  streets  when 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph,  13 

the  bells  begin  ringing  for  church;  these  sentences  should 
form  another  paragraph.  The  same  may  be  said  of  sentences 
11-13,  which  tell  what  happens  during  the  service ;  of  sen- 
tences 14-19,  which  tell  of  what  happens 'after  the  service; 
and  of  sentences  20-22,  which  tell  of  the  enjoyments  of  Sun- 
day afternoon.  By  indenting  at  the  beginning  of  sentences 
7,  11,  14,  and  20,  these  paragraph-groups  may  be  indicated 
to  the  eye. 

Beware  of  running  together  in  one  group  sentences  that  should 
form  separate  groups. 

EXERCISE  4. 

I  was  received  very  kindly  by  the  warden,  and  went  for  many 
days  to  the  academy.  Every  room  has  in  it  one  or  more  pro- 
jectors, and  I  believe  I  could  not  be  in  fewer  than  five  hundred 
rooms.  The  first  man  I  saw  was  of  a  meagre  aspect,  with  sooty 
hands  and  face,  his  hair  and  beard  long,  ragged  and  singed  in 
several  places.  His  clothes,  shirt,  and  skin  were  all  of  the  same 
color.  He  had  been  eight  years  upon  a  project  for  extracting 
sunbeams  out  of  cucumbers,  which  were  to  be  put  in  vials  her- 
metically sealed,  and  let  out  to  warm  the  air  in  raw,  inclement 
summers.  He  told  me  he  did  not  doubt  that  in  eight  years  more 
he  should  be  able  to  supply  the  governor's  gardens  with  sunshine 
at  a  reasonable  rate  ;  but  he  complained  that  the  stock  was  low, 
and  entreated  me  to  give  him  something  as  an  encouragement  to 
ingenuity,  especially  since  this  had  been  a  very  dear  season  for 
cucumbers.  I  made  him  a  small  present,  for  my  lord  had  furnished 
me  with  money,  on  purpose,  because  he  knew  their  practice  of 
begging  from  all  who  go  to  see  them.  I  saw  another  at  work  to 
calcine  ice  into  gunpowder,  who  likewise  showed  me  a  treatise  he 
had  written  concerning  the  malleability  of  fire,  which  he  intended 
to  publish.  There  was  a  most  ingenious  architect,  who  had  con- 
trived a  new  method  for  building  houses,  by  beginning  at  the  roof, 
and  working  downwards  to  the  foundation ;  which  he  justified  to 
me  by  the  like  practice  of  those  two  prudent  insects,  the  bee  and 
the  spider.     In  another  apartment  I  was  highly  pleased  with  a 


14  Composition-Rhetoric, 

projector  who  had  found  a  device  of  ploughing  the  ground  with 
hogs,  to  save  the  charges  of  ploughs,  cattle,  and  labor.  The  method 
is  this :  in  an  acre  of  ground,  you  bury,  at  six  inches  distance,  and 
eight  deep,  a  quantity  of  acorns,  dates,  chestnuts,  and  other  masts 
or  vegetables,  whereof  these  animals  are  fondest ;  then  you  drive 
six  hundred  or  more  of  them  into  the  field,  where  in  a  few  days 
they  will  root  up  the  whole  ground  in  search  of  their  food,  and 
make  it  fit  for  sowing.  It  is  true,  upon  experiment  they  found 
the  charge  and  trouble  very  great,  and  they  had  little  or  no  crop. 
However,  it  is  not  doubted  that  this  invention  may  be  capable  of 
great  improvement.  I  went  into  another  room,  where  the  walls 
and  ceilings  were  all  hung  round  wdth  cobwebs,  except  a  narrow 
passage  for  the  artist  to  go  in  and  out.  At  my  entrance  he  called 
aloud  to  me  not  to  disturb  his  webs.  He  lamented  the  fatal 
mistake  the  world  had  been  so  long  in,  of  using  silk-worms,  while 
we  had  such  plenty  of  domestic  insects,  who  infinitely  excelled  the 
former  because  they  understood  how  to  weave  as  well  as  spin. 
And  he  proposed,  farther,  that  by  employing  spiders,  the  charge  of 
dyeing  silks  should  be  wholly  saved ;  whereof  I  was  fully  convinced 
when  he  showed  me  a  vast  number  of  flies  most  beautifully  colored, 
wherewith  he  fed  his  spiders ;  assuring  us  that  the  webs  would 
take  a  tincture  from  them ;  and  as  he  had  them  of  all  hues,  he 
hoped  to  fit  everybody's  fancy,  as  soon  as  he  could  find  proper 
food  for  the  flies,  of  certain  gums,  oils,  and  other  glutinous  matter, 
to  give  a  strength  and  consistence  to  the  threads. 

In  this  selection  there  is  first  a  general  statement  regard- 
ing the  author's  visit  to  the  Academy ;  then  the  author  de- 
scribes various  rooms  and  their  occupants.  What  words 
should  be  indented  ? 

The  characteristic  peculiarity  of  the  Pilgrim's  Progress  is  that 
it  is  the  only  work  of  its  kind  which  possesses  a  strong  human 
interest.  Other  allegories  only  amuse  the  fancy.  The  allegory 
of  Bunyan  has  been  read  by  many  thousands  with  tears.  There 
are  some  good  allegories  in  Johnson's  works,  and  some  of  still 
higher  merit  by  Addison.  In  these  performances  there  is,  per- 
haps, as  much  wit  and  ingenuity  as  in  the  Pilgrim's  Progress.  But 
the  pleasure  which  is  produced  by  the  Vision  of  Mirza,  the  Vision 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph,  15 

of  Theodore,  the  Genealogy  of  Wit,  or  the  contest  between  Rest 
and  Labor,  is  exactly  similar  to  the  pleasure  which  we  derive  from 
one  of  Cowley's  odes  or  from  a  canto  of  Iludibras.  It  is  a  pleasure 
which  belongs  wholly  to  the  understanding,  and  in  which  the  feel- 
ings have  no  part  whatever.  It  is  not  so  with  the  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress. That  wonderful  book,  while  it  obtains  admiration  from  the 
most  fastidious  critics,  is  loved  by  those  who  are  too  simple  to 
admire  it.  Doctor  Johnson,  all  whose  studies  were  desultory,  and 
who  hated,  as  he  said,  to  read  books  through,  made  an  exception 
in  favor  of  the  Pilgrim's  Progress..  That  work,  he  said,  was  one 
of  the  two  or  three  works  which  he  wished  longer.  In  the  wildest 
parts  of  Scotland  the  Pilgrim's  Progress  is  the  delight  of  the  peas- 
antry. In  every  nursery  the  Pilgrim's  Progress  is  a  greater  favor- 
ite than  Jack  the  Giant-Killer.  Every  reader  knows  the  straight 
and  narrow  path  as  well  as  he  knows  a  road  in  which  he  has  gone 
backward  and  forward  a  hundred  times.  This  is  the  highest  mira- 
cle of  genius,  —  that  things  which  are  not  should  be  as  though  they 
were ;  that  the  imaginations  of  one  mind  should  become  the  per- 
sonal recollections  of  another.  And  this  miracle  the  tinker  has 
w^rought.  There  is  no  ascent,  no  declivity,  no  resting-place,  no 
turnstile,  with  which  we  are  not  perfectly  acquainted.  The  wdcket- 
gate,  and  the  desolate  swamp  which  separates  it  from  the  City  of 
Destruction ;  the  long  line  of  road,  as  straight  as  a  rule  can  make 
it ;  the  Interpreter's  house  and  all  its  fair  shov/s ;  all  the  stages  of 
the  journey,  all  the  forms  w^hich  cross  or  overtake  the  pilgrims, 
giants  and  hobgoblins,  ill-favored  ones  and  shining  ones;  the  tall, 
comely,  swarthy  Madam  Bubble  with  her  great  purse  by  her  side, 
and  her  fingers  playing  with  the  money;  the  black  man  in  the 
bright  vesture;  Mr.  Worldly  Wiseman  and  my  Lord  Hategood, 
Mr.  Talkative  and  Mrs.  Timorous ;  —  all  are  actually  existing  be- 
ings to  us.  We  follow  the  travellers  through  their  allegorical 
progress  with  interest  not  inferior  to  that  with  which  we  follow 
Elizabeth  from  Siberia  to  Moscow,  or  Jeanie  Deans  from  Edin- 
burgh to  London. 

Observe  that  in  this  selection  there  are  three  distinct 
ideas :  first,  Pilgrim\s  Progress  is  different  from  other  alle- 
gories ;  second,  Pilgrim'' s  Progress  touches  the  heart  and 
imagination  of  every  one ;  third,  every  event  and  figure  in 


16  Composition-Rhetoric. 

this  allegory  is  interesting  to  us.  With  this  clue,  decide 
what  sentences  belong  together  and  where  indentions  should 
be  made. 

The  young  prince  Hamlet  was  not  happy  at  Elsinore.  It  was 
not  because  he  missed  the  gay  student-life  of  Wittenberg,  and  that 
the  little  Danish  court  was  intolerably  dull.  It  was  not  because 
the  didactic  lord  chamberlain  bored  him  with  long  speeches,  or 
that  the  lord  chamberlain's  daughter  was  become  a  shade  weari- 
some. Hamlet  had  more  serious  cues  for  unhappiness.  He  had 
been  summoned  suddenly  from  Wittenberg  to  attend  his  father's 
funeral ;  close  upon  this  and  while  his  grief  was  green,  his  mother 
had  married  with  his  uncle  Claudius,  whom  Hamlet  had  never 
liked.  The  indecorous  haste  of  these  nuptials  —  they  took  place 
within  two  months  after  the  king's  death,  the  funeral  baked  meats, 
as  Hamlet  cursorily  remarked,  furnishing  forth  the  marriage-tables 
—  struck  the  young  prince  aghast.  He  had  loved  the  queen  his 
mother,  and  had  nearly  idolized  the  late  king ;  but  now  he  forgot 
to  lament  the  death  of  the  one  in  contemplating  the  life  of  the 
other.  The  billing  and  cooing  of  the  newly-married  couple  filled 
him  with  horror.  Anger,  shame,  pity,  and  despair  seized  upon 
him  by  turns.  He  fell  into  a  forlorn  condition,  forsaking  his 
books,  eating  little  save  of  the  chameleon's  dish,  the  air,  drinking 
deep  of  Rhenish,  letting  his  long,  black  locks  go  unkempt,  and 
neglecting  his  dress  —  he  who  had  hitherto  been  "the  glass  of 
fashion  and  the  mould  of  form,"  as  Ophelia  had  prettily  said  of 
him.  Often  for  half  the  night  he  would  wander  along  the  ram- 
parts of  the  castle,  at  the  imminent  risk  of  tumbling  off,  gaz- 
ing seaward  and  muttering  strangely  to  himself,  and  evolving 
frightful  spectres  out  of  the  shadows  cast  by  the  turrets.  Some- 
times he  lapsed  into  a  gentle  melancholy ;  but  not  seldom  his  mood 
was  ferocious,  and  at  such  times  the  conversational  Polonius,  with 
a  discretion  that  did  him  credit,  steered  clear  of  my  lord  Hamlet. 
He  turned  no  more  graceful  compliments  for  Ophelia.  The  thought 
of  marrying  her,  if  he  had  ever  seriously  thought  of  it,  was  gone 
now.  He  rather  ruthlessly  advised  her  to  go  into  a  nunnery.  His 
mother  had  sickened  him  of  women.  It  was  of  her  he  spoke  the 
notable  words,  ^'  Frailty,  thy  name  is  woman  ! "  which,  some  time 
afterwards,  an  amiable  French  gentleman  had  neatly  engraved  on 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph.  IT 

the  head-stone  of  his  wife,  who  had  long  been  an  invalid.  Even 
the  king  and  queen  did  not  escape  Hamlet  in  his  distempered 
moments.  Passing  his  mother  in  a  corridor  or  on  a  staircase  of 
the  palace,  he  would  suddenly  plant  a  verbal  dagger  in  her  heart ; 
and  frequently,  in  full  court,  he  would  deal  the  king  such  a  cutting 
reply  as  caused  him  to  blanch,  and  gnaw  his  lip. 

Four  ideas  will  be  found  in  this  selection:  (1)  reasons 
for  Hamlet's  sadness ;  (2)  the  effect  upon  him  of  the  hasty 
marriage  of  the  Queen;  (3)  his  varying  moods;  (4)  his 
harshness  towards  Ophelia,  the  Queen,  and  the  King. 
Where  should  the  second  paragraph  begin  ?  the  third  ?  the 
fourth? 


LESSON  5. 

Faults  of  Indention :   Indentions  Irregular  and 
Meaningless, 

1.  On  one  of  those  sober  and  rather  melancholy  days,  in  the 
latter  part  of  Autumn,  when  the  shadows  of  morning  and  evening 
almost  mingle  together,  and  throw  a  gloom  over  the  decline  of 
the  year,  I  passed  several  hours  in  rambling  about  Westminster 
Abbey.  2.  There  was  something  congenial  to  the  season  in  the 
mournful  magnificence  of  the  old  pile ;  and,  as  I  passed  its  thresh- 
old, seemed  like  stepping  back  into  the  regions  of  antiquity, 
and  losing  myself  among  the  shades  of  former  ages.  3.  I  entered 
from  the  inner  court  of  Westminster  School,  through  a  long,  low, 
vaulted  passage,  that  had  an  almost  subterranean  look,  being 
dimly  lighted  in  one  part  by  circular  perforations  in  the  massive 
walls. 

4.  Through  this  dark  avenue  I  had  a  distant  view  of  the  clois- 
ters, with  the  figure  of  an  old  verger,  in  his  black  gown,  moving 
along  their  shadowy  vaults,  and  seeming  like  a  spectre  from  one 
of  the  neighboring  tombs.  5.  The  approach  to  the  abbey  through 
these  gloomy  monastic  remains  prepares  the  mind  for  its  solemn 
contemplation.  6.  The  cloisters  still  retain  something  of  the 
quiet  and  seclusion  of  former  days. 


18  Composition-Rhetor  ie. 

7.  The  gray  walls  are  discolored  by  damps,  and  crumbling  with 
age ;  a  coat  of  hoary  moss  has  gathered  over  the  inscriptions  of 
the  mural  monuments,  and  obscured  the  death's  head  and  other 
funereal  emblems. 

8.  The  sharp  touches  of  the  chisel  are  gone  from  the  rich  tracery 
of  the  arches ;  the  roses  which  adorned  the  keystones  have  lost 
their  leafy  beauty ;  every  thing  bears  marks  of  the  gradual  dilapi- 
dations of  time,  which  yet  has  something  touching  and  pleasing  in 
its  very  decay.  9.  The  sun  was  pouring  down  a  yellow  autumnal 
ray  into  the  square  of  the  cloisters ;  beaming  upon  a  scanty  plot 
of  grass  in  the  centre,  and  lighting  up  the  angle  of  the  vaulted 
passage  with  a  kind  of  dusky  splendor. 

10.  From  between  the  arcades,  the  eye  glanced  up  to  a  bit  of 
blue  sky  or  a  passing  cloud ;  and  beheld  the  sun-gilt  pinnacles  of 
the  abbey  towering  into  the  azure  heaven. 

In  this  selection  as  it  appears  above,  there  are  several 
irregularities  of  paragraphing.  Following  the  indention, 
one  would  infer  that  sentences  1-3  form  a  sentence-group ; 
that  sentences  4-6  form  another ;  and  that  sentences  8  and 
9  form  a  third;  while  sentences  7  and  10  would  seem  to 
be  independent  of  the  rest.  But  this  is  not  the  case.  Sen- 
tences 1  and  2  are  much  more  closely  connected  than  sen- 
tences 2  and  3.  Sentences  1  and  2  treat  of  the  Abbey 
in  a  general  way;  sentence  3  begins  a  description  of  the 
interior.  Sentence  3,  then,  because  it  introduces  a  new 
subject,  should  be  separated  from  sentences  1  and  2  by  an 
indention.  Sentence  4,  since  it  dwells  upon  the  idea  of  the 
dark  avenue  described  in  sentence  3,  should  bear  no  mark 
of  separation  from  that  sentence.  Nor  should  sentence  7 
be  separated  from  sentences  6  and  8.  It  is  the  office  of 
sentences  7  and  8  to  continue  the  idea  of  sentence  6  by 
giving  particulars  regarding  the  gloom  and  dilapidation  of 
the  cloister.  Obviously  sentences  6,  7,  and  8  belong  to- 
gether as  much  as  do  sentences  3-6.  Note,  however,  that 
while  sentence  8  carries  on  the  idea  of  sentence  7,  sentences 
9  and  10  are  upon  a  different  theme.     Sentences  3-8  dwell 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph,  19 

upon  the  gloom  and  dilapidation  of  the  cloister ;  sentences 
9  and  10  describe  the  brightness  of  the  exterior.  Sen- 
tences 3-8,  therefore,  should  oe  put  in  One  paragraph ;  sen- 
tences 9  and  10  in  another  paragraph.  Arranged  in  accord- 
ance with  the  foregoing  suggestions,  the  selection  appears 
as  follows :  — 

On  one  of  those  sober  and  melancholy  days,  in  the  latter  part 
of  Autumn,  when  the  shadows  of  morning  and  evening  almost 
mingle  together,  and  throw  a  gloom  over  the  decline  of  the  year, 
I  passed  several  hours  in  rambling  about  Westminster  Abbey. 
There  was  something  congenial  to  the  season  in  the  mournful 
magnificence  of  the  old  pile ;  and,  as  I  passed  its  threshold,  seemed 
like  stepping  back  into  the  regions  of  antiquity,  and  losing  myself 
among  the  shades  of  former  ages. 

I  entered  from  the  inner  court  of  Westminster  School,  through 
a  long,  low,  vaulted  passage,  that  had  an  almost  subterranean  look, 
being  dimly  lighted  in  one  part  by  circular  perforations  in  the 
massive  walls.  Through  this  dark  avenue  I  had  a  distant  view  of 
the  cloisters,  with  the  figure  of  an  old  verger,  in  his  black  gown, 
moving  along  their  shadowy  vaults,  and  seeming  like  a  spectre 
from  one  of  the  neighboring  tombs.  The  approach  to  the  abbey 
through  these  gloomy  monastic  remains  prepares  the  mind  for  its 
solemn  contemplation.  The  cloisters  still  retain  something  of  the 
quiet  and  seclusion  of  former  days.  The  gray  walls  are  discolored 
by  damps,  and  crumbling  with  age  ;  a  coat  of  hoary  moss  has  gath- 
ered over  the  inscriptions  of  the  mural  monuments,  and  obscured 
the  death's  head  and  other  funereal  emblems.  The  sharp  touches 
of  the  chisel  are  gone  from  the  rich  tracery  of  the  arches ;  the 
roses  which  adorned  the  keystones  have  lost  their  leafy  beauty; 
every  thing  bears  marks  of  the  gradual  dilapidations  of  time,  which 
yet  has  something  touching  and  pleasing  in  its  very  decay. 

The  sun  was  pouring  down  a  yellow  autumnal  ray  into  the 
square  of  the  cloisters;  beaming  upon  a  scanty  plot  of  grass  in 
the  centre,  and  lighting  up  an  angle  of  the  vaulted  passage  with 
a  kind  of  dusky  splendor.  From  between  the  arcades,  the  eye 
glanced  up  to  a  bit  of  blue  sky  or  a  passing  cloud ;  and  beheld 
the  sun-gilt  pinnacles  of  the  abbey  towering  ijito  the  azure  heaven. 
—  Irving  :  Sketch  Book. 


20  Composition-Rhetoric, 

EXERCISE  5. 

Criticise  the  following  selection  with  reference  to  the 
place  of  indention.  Eead  the  selection  carefully,  noting 
the  various  ways  in  which  the  subject  is  treated,  or  the 
various  parts  of  the  subject  that  are  taken  up  in  succession. 
Sentences  that  treat  the  subject  in  the  same  w^ay  or  tell  of 
the  same  part  of  the  subject,  should  be  brought  together  in 
a  single  group. 

The  store  was  kept  by  a  hard-faced  looking  man  who  went  by 
the  name  of  Shubael,  sometimes  with  and  sometimes  without  the 
prefix  "  Colonel."  He  was  an  elderly  man,  quiet  and  cool  in  his 
air  and  manner,  and  with  a  countenance  placid  but  heartless  in  its 
expression.  There  was  a  certain  quick  motion  of  his  eye  which 
showed  that  he  was  shrewd  and  observant.  His  store  had  a  bad 
name,  and  yet  no  one  seemed  to  know  exactly  why.  Colonel  Shu- 
bael himself,  too,  was  the  object  of  a  certain  mysterious  fear,  and 
even  hate  ;  and  yet  no  one  had  anything  very  decided  to  say  against 
him.  He  was  believed  to  be  a  perfectly  honest  man,  so  far  as  legal 
honesty  is  concerned.  !N"o  man  understood  the  law  better  than  he, 
or  the  sound  policy  of  keeping  on  good  terms  with  it.  Mr.  Shu- 
bael's  store  was  small,  but  it  had  a  snug,  social  air  within.  It  was 
nearly  square,  with  a  door  in  the  middle  of  the  front. 

A  counter  extended  along  one  side  and  across  the  back  of  the 
store ;  and  on  the  remaining  side,  near  the  corner  next  the  road, 
was  a  fireplace,  with  a  barrel  of  oil  and  another  of  cider  near  it, 
to  keep  them  from  freezing.  There  were  other  barrels  and  hogs- 
heads, less  likely  to  freeze,  behind  the  counter  against  the  back 
side  of  the  room.  A  door  between  two  great  black  hogsheads 
mounted  on  sticks,  opened  to  a  dark-looking  back  room  behind. 
Tubs,  bundles  of  whip-handles,  hoes  and  shovels,  barrels,  kegs  of 
nails,  and  iron-ware,  encumbered  the  floor,  leaving  only  narrow 
passages  along  in  front  of  the  counters  and  toward  the  fire.  There 
was  a  little  area  near  the  fire  also  unoccupied,  and  two  or  three 
basket-bottomed  chairs,  with  high  wooden  backs,  stood  there. 

A  half-keg  of  closely  packed  tobacco  was  near,  with  one  loose 
fig  and  an  old  hatchet  lying  on  it ;  and  there  was  an  ink  bottle, 
with  a  blackened  and  dried-up  quill  thrust  through  the  cork,  in  the 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph,  21 

chimney  corner.  This  was  the  aspect  of  the  store  in  the  winter ; 
but  it  was  now  summer,  between  haying  and  harvesting. 

The  fire  was  dead,  and  a  great  tin  fender  concealed  the  ashes 
and  brands.  The  chairs  were  put  out  before  the  door,  and  two  or 
three  men  were  sitting  and  standing  there,  waiting  for  the  "  stage." 
It  was  a  calm  and  pleasant  afternoon ;  the  forests  around  were  in 
their  best  dress,  and  the  view  up  the  pond  was  picturesque  in  the 
highest  degree. 

But  the  company  paid  little  attention  to  the  beauty  of  the 
scenery. 

They  were  looking  out  for  the  "  stage."  Mr.  Shubael  was  the 
postmaster. 

A  little  high  paling,  at  the  end  of  the  counter  opposite  the  fire, 
was  the  post-office.  The  mail  came  once  a  week,  bringing  a  few 
newspapers  and  sometimes  some  letters.  The  company  which  was 
collected  on  this  occasion  were  not  interested  so  much  in  the  con- 
tents of  the  mail,  as  in  a  new  team  of  horses,  and  a  large  coach, 
which  was  that  day  for  the  first  time  to  be  put  on  the  road. 

They  were  looking  off  beyond  the  bridge,  where  the  road  could 
be  seen  for  a  considerable  distance  winding  around  a  hill,  and  talk- 
ing with  noisy  laughter  about  various  subjects  that  came  up.  By 
the  side  of  the  door,  outside,  his  chair  tipped  back  against  the  side 
of  the  building  and  his  feet  resting  upon  a  bar  which  passed  along 
between  two  posts  placed  there  for  fastening  horses,  sat  a  tall,  dark- 
complexioned  man,  with  black  bushy  hair  and  eyebrows,  and  an 
intelligent  but  sinister  expression  of  countenance.  They  called 
him  McDonner. 

EXERCISE  6. 

On  one  of  the  following  outlines  write  an  essay  of  about 
300  words.  The  paragraph-sign  shows  the  places  where 
indention  should  be  made. 

A  Skating  Scene. 

^  Time  and  place -«^ weather  favorable  —  condition  of  the  ice 
—  number  of  skaters  —  di:fferent  colors  of  clothes,  scarfs,  etc. — 
T  Noticeable  characters  —  fancy  skaters  —  beginners  —  ^  A  race  — 
result  —  a  collision  —  other  mishaps  —  the  return  home. 


22  Composition-Rhetoric, 

The  Human  Hand. 

^  General  shape  outside  and  inside  —  advantage  of  this  shape 
—  divisions  —  parts  enumerated  and  described  —  ^  Kinds  of  joints 
and  special  uses  —  ^  Nails,  description  and  uses  —  the  ends  of  the 
fingers,  why  so  sensitive  ?  -^  If  The  thumb,  special  situation  and 
form,  and  adaptedness  to  use  —  ^  Strength  of  hand  may  be  cul- 
tivated—  relation  of  hand  to  occupation — If  Why  two  hands?  — 
superiority  of  man. 

Learning  to  debate. 

^  Purpose  in  joining  the  society — ^  First  experience,  the  ques- 
tion, what  I  intended  to  say,  diffidence,  lack  of  words,  forgetting 
pre-arranged  plan,  long  and  involved  sentences,  confused  thought, 
led  astray  by  objections,  desperation  and  dissatisfaction  with  my 
effort  —  ^  Resolutions  for  future  debates — If  Second  experience,  the 
question,  more  careful  preparation,  first  sentences  memorized,  plan 
stated,  greater  ease  while  speaking,  less  haste  to  get  to  new  points, 
shorter  sentences,  refusal  to  be  led  off  by  objections,  sticking  to 
original  plan  —  result,  less  dissatisfaction  —  •[f  Later  experiences, 
what  I  have  learned  from  former  efforts,  as  to  need  of  previous 
preparation,  having  a  plan,  stating  the  plan,  danger  of  haste  in 
beginning,  treatment  of  objections,  efforts  at  copiousness  of  expres- 
sion, attempts  at  eloquence,  seriousness  of  method,  ridicule  of 
oppoiients,  hurry  and  nervousness,  talking  over-time. 

Reasons  for  the  Success  of  the  American  Revolution. 

If  Righteousness  of  the  American  cause  —  practical  unanimity 
of  the  colonists  —  common  grievances  —  resulting  zeal  —  If  English 
support  of  the  war  against  the  colonies  not  unanimous  —  parlia- 
mentary opposition  to  the  war  —  classes  of  the  English  people 
favorable  to  the  colonies  —  ^  Circumstances  fortunate  for  the 
colonies  —  distance  of  England  —  England's  troubles  with  other 
foreign  nations  at  the  time  —  ^f  French  aid  of  the  colonies  — 
If  Superiority  of  American  leaders  and  generals  —  American  meth- 
ods of  war  —  knowledge  of  the  country — If  Faith  and  endurance 
of  the  colonists  —  the  spirit  of  the  times. 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph,  23 

Advantages  of  the  Columbian  Exposition. 

^  General  educational  value  —  every  one  could  learn  from  it  — 
what  the  farmer,  tradesman,  mechanic,  teacher,  etc.,  could  learn 
of  his  own  work  —  of  the  work  of  others — *|[  Knowledge  of  foreign 
nations  —  result  of  this — ^  What  oUher  countries  could  learn  of 
us  — 1[  Meetings  of  men  working  in  the  same  departments  of  life 
in  different  countries  —  scientific  meetings  —  Parliament  of  Re- 
ligions—  result  — 1[  Effect  on  patriotism  and  upon  regard  for 
humanity. 

Intelligence  of  Dogs. 

^  Decidedly  greater  than  in  other  domestic  animals  —  contrast 
briefly  with  the  others  —  If  Know  their  masters,  and  ready  to 
protect  them  against  assault  —  to  bring  assistance  if  needed  — 
^  Protect  property  —  run  errands  —  watch-dogs  —  shepherd  dogs 
—  %  Save  life  —  Newfoundlands  —  St.  Bernards  — •f  Exceptional 
instances  of  intelligence  in  dogs. 


The  Last  Story  I  read. 

^  Author,  and  something  about  him  —  If  Short  summary  of  the 
story  —  Tf  Hero  —  admirable?  natural?  like  any  one  you  know?  — 
^  Other  characters  —  do  they  act  and  talk  like  real  people?  instances 
of  this  quoted  —  ^  Purpose  of  the  story,  if  any,  besides  entertain- 
ment —  any  direct  influence  felt  after  reading  it  ? 

The  Electric  Telegraph. 

^  Inventor,  date  —  first  trials  —  ^  Principle  of  the  telegraph  and 
parts  explained  —  the  battery,  sounder,  key,  line,  relay,  accessories 
—  ^  Effect  of  its  extensive  use  upon  commerce  and  civilization. 

A  Country  Village. 

If  General  view  from  the  railway  station  —  apparent  size  — 
evidences  of  activity  or  of  dulness  —  the  general  store  and  post- 
office,  near  by  —  impression  of  the  inhabitants  waiting  for  the 


24  Composition-Rhetoinc, 

mail —  ^  A  closer  view  of  the  village,  gained  by  strolling  through 
it  —  quiet,  shady  streets  —  neat  cottages  —  old-fashioned  flower- 
gardens  —  adjoining  vegetable  gardens  —  If  The  village  commons 

—  grazing  cows  —  stray  chickens  —  group  of  boys — T[  The  weather- 
beaten  meeting-house — the  village  school-house — the  village  inn 

'  —  blacksmith  shop  —  mill — \  Appearance  from  the  bridge,  near 
by,  of  surrounding  country,  fields,  woods,  hills  —  the  neglected 
burying-ground  upon  the  hillside — \  The  cleanliness,  freshness, 
quiet,  of  the  village  as  contrasted  with  the  city. 

A  Fire. 

If  The  alarm  —  hurrying  people  —  engines  rushing  by  —  I  run 
after  them  —  ^f  First  view  of  it  from  a  distance  —  what  and  where 
it  proved  to  be  —  its  appearance  on  my  arrival  —  "[f  Rapid  spread  of 
the  flames  —  imminent  danger  of  surrounding  buildings  —  work 
of  the  firemen  begins  to  tell  —  Tf  Bravery  of  firemen  —  an  accident 

—  gradual  extinguishment  of  the  fire  —  If  The  loss  —  insurance  — 
inquiry  as  to  the  cause  —  the  probable  explanation. 

Washington  and  Lincoln  compared  as  Statesmen. 

If  The  two  greatest  Americans  —  each  appeared  at  a  great 
crisis;  Washington  at  the  birth  of  the  nation,  Lincoln  at  its  time 
of  greatest  need  —  each  was  the  one  indispensable  man  of  his 
time —  Washington's  great  work  in  establishing  independence  and 
administering  the  new  government,  briefly  summarized  —  Lincoln's 
great  work  in  suppressing  rebellion,  abolishing  slavery,  and  restoring 
union,  briefly  summarized  —  ^  Their  preparation  for  their  work 
as  statesmen  compared  and  contrasted  —  scanty  yet  practical  edu- 
cation of  both — knowledge  of  men,  how  gained  by  Washington, 
and  how  by  Lincoln,  before  election  to  the  Presidency? — knowl- 
edge of  statecraft  and  contact  with  political  life  before  election  to 
the  Presidency,  compared  —  ^  The  country's  estimate  of  each  at 
the  time  of  inauguration,  contrasted  —  problems  of  state  confront- 
ing each  at  the  time  of  inauguration,  likenesses  and  diiferences 
in  kind — ^  How  Washington  solved  his  problems  and  showed  his 
statesmanship,  in  choice  of  cabinet  officers  —  in  choice  of  Supreme 
Court  judges  favorable  to  the  Constitution  —  in  supporting  Hamil- 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph.  25 

ton's  financial  measures  —  in  suppressing  rebellion  —  in  managing 
foreign  relations  —  in  repressing  party  strife  —  ^  How  Lincoln 
solved  his  problems  and  showed  his  statesmanship,  in  his  attitude 
towards  the  South  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  —  in  his  choice  of 
cabinet  officers  and  generals  —  in  delaying  emancipation  until  it 
was  clearly  a  war  necessity  —  in  avoiding  foreign  complications  — 
in  repressing  party  fury  —  in  plans  for  easy  reconstruction  of  states 
—  ^Political  methods  compared — attitude  towards  the  common 
people  —  personality  of  Washington  and  Lincoln  compared  as 
bearing  on  their  political  influence  —  ^  Results  of  their  work  com- 
pared—  the  judgment  of  history  on  both  as  statesmen. 


LESSOIST  6. 

Other  Uses  of  Indention, 

The  indention  that  marks  the  beginning  of  a  paragraph 
should   be   distinguished   from   indentions  made  for  other 
purposes. 
1.  In  conversational  passages,  the  speeches  of  different 
^persons  are  separated  by  indention. 

"Did  you  ever  hear  a  tom-tom,  sir?"  sternly  inquired  the 
captain,  who  lost  no  opportunity  of  showing  oif  his  travels,  real  or 
pretended. 

"  A  what?"  asked  Hardy,  rather  taken  aback. 

"  A  tom-tom." 

"  Never ! " 

"  I^or  a  gum-gum  ?  " 

"  Never ! " 

'^  What  is  a  gum-gum? "  eagerly  inquired  several  young  ladies. 

Explanatory  matter  coming  between  the  speeches  is  some- 
times combined  with  the  speech  to  which  it  is  most  nearly 
related,  as  in  the  following  example :  — 

'^  How  is  this  privileged  person  ?  "  Mrs.  Blunt  asked, 

"You   shall  see,"  said  Edith.     "I   am   glad  you  came,  for   I 


26  Composition-Rhetoric, 

wanted   very   much   to   consult   you.     I  was   going   to   send   for 
you." 

"  Well,  here  I  am.  But  I  didn't  come  about  the  baby.  I 
wanted  to  consult  you.  We  miss  you,  dear,  every  day."  A  nd  then 
Mrs.  Blunt  began  to  speak  about  some  social  and  charitable  arrange- 
ments, but  stopped  suddenly.  "  I'll  see  the  baby  first.  Good-morn- 
ing, Mrs.  Henderson."     And  she  left  the  room. 

But  often  such  explanatory  matter  is  allowed  to  stand  by 
itself,  as  in  the  following :  — 

"Mebbe  ye  would  be  better  in  yer  bed,"  suggested  Hendry. 
No  one  spoke. 

"  When  I  had  the  headache,"  said  Hendry,  "  I  was  better  in  my 
bed." 

2.  Quotations,  especially  if  they  are  of  some  length  and 
begin  a  new  sentence,  are  often  treated  as  separate  para- 
graphs and  distinguished  by  indention.  If  the  quotation  is 
short,  it  is  usually  distinguished  only  by  quotation  marks,  and 
is  not  set  off  by  itself;  but  if  it  is  long,  it  may  be  set  off  by 
itself  (without  indention)  even  though  it  does  not  begin  a 
new  sentence.  The  following  example  illustrates  (1)  A  short 
quotation  distinguished  only  by  quotation  marks  and  not  set 
off  by  itself,  (2)  A  longer  quotation  beginning  a  new  sentence, 
set  off  by  indention  and  quotation,  (3)  A  part  of  a  sentence 
following  quoted  matter  and  not  indented,  (4)  A  quotation 
not  beginning  a  new  sentence  but  set  off  by  itself  (without 
indention)  on  account  of  its  length,  (5)  A  sentence  following, 
not  indented. 

We  must  not  forget  the  celebrated  work  that  had  so  great  an 
influence  upon  the  literature  of  that  [the  Elizabethan]  and  the 
following  age,  the  Arcadia  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  That  quaint  yet 
poetic,  pastoral  romance  was,  in  prose,  like  Spenser's  Faerie 
Queene  in  verse,  a  treasury  of  intellectual  beauties.  It  should  be 
remembered  in  judging  the  work  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  that  he 
thought  very  meanly  of  it  himself,  and  that  he  never  intended  it 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph.  2T 

for  publication.  Dedicating  the  book  to  his  "  Dear  lady  and  fair 
sister  the  Countess  of  Pembroke,"  he  says  :  — 

"You  desired  me  to  do  it,  and  your  desire,  to  my  heart,  is  an 
absolute  commandment.  Now  it  is  done  only  for  you,  only  to 
you."  Aubrey  tells  us  that  Sidney  "  was  wont  to  take  his  table- 
book  out  of  his  pocket  and  write  down  his  notions  as  they  came 
into  his  head,  as  he  was  hunting  on  Sarum's  pleasant  plains."  It 
was  in  1580  that  Sidney  began  the  composition  of  his  romance. — 
Saunders  :  The  Story  of  Some  Famous  Books. 

If  the  qyaotation  occurs  in  the  middle  of  a  paragraph,  the 
sentence  which  follows  should  not  b^mdentedT"^"  ' 

Nothing  remained  of  the  Madre  Dolorosa  but  a  few  floating 
spars  and  struggling  wretches,  while  a  great  awe  fell  upon  all 
men,  and  a  solemn  silence,  broken  only  by  the  cry 

**  Of  some  strong  swimmer  in  his  agony." 

And  then,  suddenly  collecting  themselves,  as  men  awakened  from 
a  dream,  half-a-dozen  desperate  gallants,  reckless  of  sharks  and 
eddies,  leaped  overboard,  swam  towards  the  flag,  and  towed  it 
alongside  in  triumph. 

The  good  old  times  I     Where  and  when  were  those  good  old 

times  V 

"  All  times  when  old  are  good," 

says  Byron. 

"  And  all  our  yesterdays  have  lighted  fools 
The  way  to  dusty  death," 

says  the  great  master  of  morals  and  humanity.  But  neither  fools 
nor  sages,  neither  individuals  nor  nations,  have  any  other  light  to 
guide  them  along  the  track  which  all  must  tread,  save  that  long, 
glimmering  vista  of  yesterdays  which  grows  so  swiftly  fainter  and 
fainter  as  the  present  fades  into  the  past.  And  I  believe  it  pos- 
sible to  discover  a  law  out  of  all  this  apparently  chaotic  whirl 
and  bustle,  this  tangled  skein  of  human  affairs,  as  it  spins  itself 
through  the  centuries.  That  law  is  Progress,  —  slow,  confused, 
contradictory,  but  ceaseless  development,  intellectual  and  moral, 


28  Composition-Rhetoric, 

of  the  human  race.  —  Motley:  Historic  Progress  and  American 
Democracy. 

3.  In  letters,  indentions  are  nsed  to  distingiiish  the  vari- 
ous parts.  If  the  letter  begins  with  the  name  and  address 
of  the  correspondent,  the  address  is  usually  indented.  The 
salutation  is  more  deeply  indented  than  the  address,  and 
the  body  of  the  letter  more  deeply  still.  Various  grades  of 
indention  also  distinguish  the  parts  of  the  conclusion.  The 
following  will  illustrate  :  — 

Headquarters  Department  of  the  Ohio, 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  Sept.  8,  1862. 
RuFus  King,  Esq., 

President  School  Board,  Cincinnati,  Ohio: 

Sir  :  In  reply  to  your  note  of  this  date  I  am  instructed  to 
say  that  the  public  schools  of  this  city  will  not  be  required  to  close 
at  4  o'clock  P.M.  daily.  The  company  of  teachers  can  assemble  for 
drill  after  the  dismissal  of  school. 

Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

N.  H.  McLean. 

Mr.  Strahan,  — 

You  are  a  member  of  Parliament,  and  one  of  that  major- 
ity which  has  doomed  my  country  to  destruction.  You  have 
begun  to  burn  our  towns  and  murder  our  people.  Look  upon 
your  hands,  they  are  stained  with  the  blood  of  your  relations  ! 
You  and  I  were  long  friends;  you  are  now  my  enemy,  and  I 
am 

Yours, 
I  B.  Franklin. 

Gloucester  Place,  London, 
July  15,  1833. 
My  darling  May, — 

How  do  you  do,  and  how  do  you  like  the  sea?  I  re- 
member that  when  I  saw  the  sea,  it  used  sometimes  to  be  very 
fussy  and  fidgety.  And  what  a  rattle  the  waves  made  with  the 
stones,  when  they  were  rough  1 


External  Form  of  the  Paragraph,  29 

Have  you  been  bathing  yet  in  the  sea,  and  were  you  afraid? 
I  was,  the  first  time.  Oh,  how  I  kicked  and  screamed !  or  at  least 
meant  to  scream ;  but  the  sea,  ships  and  all,  began  to  run  into  my 
mouth,  so  I  shut  up/ 

Well,  how  happy  you  must  be !  Childhood  is  such  a  joyous, 
merry  time.     I  often  wish  I  was  a  child  again. 

PJease  give  my  love  to  your  mamma,  and  remember  me  as  your 

affectionate  friend,  rp_^  , .  „  tt^^ 

'  iHOMAs  Hood. 

4.  Sometimes  indentions  are  made  merely  for  the  purpose 
of  attracting  the  reader^s  attention  to  something  important. 
This  device  should  be  used  with  great  caution.  '  Beginners 
will  do  well  to  avoid  it  altogether. 

One  idiotic  habit  of  the  people  is  to  attribute  to  the  king  what 
they  do  themselves. 

They  fight :  whose  is  the  glory  ? 

The  king's. 

They  pay  :  whose  is  the  generosity  ? 

The  king's. 

The  king  receives  a  crown  from  the  poor,  and  returns  them  a 
farthing. 

How  generous  he  is  1  —  Victor  Hugo. 


CHAPTER   II. 

PARAGRAPH-STRUCTURE. 

LESSOR  7. 

Thought-  Divisions. 

1.  In  the  season  of  hot  weather  in  the  central  part  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  there  often  come  successions  of  days  when  the 
atmosphere  is  not  stirred  by  the  winds,  but  remains  as  still  as  the 
air  of  a  cave.  2.  Despite  the  steady  gain  in  the  heat,  the  sky  stays 
cloudless,  or  at  most  is  flecked  by  those  light  clouds  that  lie  five 
miles  or  more  above  the  surface  of  the  earth.  3.  All  nature  seems 
cowed  beneath  the  fervent  heat,  yet  there  is  nothing  of  distinct 
portent  in  earth  or  air.  4.  At  last,  towards  evening,  there  may  be 
seen  a  sudden  curdling  of  the  western  sky ;  in  a  few  minutes  the 
clouds  gather,  coming  from  nowhere,  growing  at  once  in  the  lurid 
air.  5.  In  less  than  half  an  hour  the  forces  of  the  storm  are  organ- 
ized, and  its  dreadful  advance  begins.  6.  If  we  were  just  beneath 
the  gathering  clouds  we  would  find  that  the  air  over  a  space  a 
mile  or  so  in  diameter  was  spinning  around  in  a  great  whirlpool, 
and  while  the  revolving  mass  slowly  advanced,  the  central  part 
moved  rapidly  upwards.  7.  Beginning  slowly,  all  the  movements 
of  the  storm,  the  whirling  action,  the  vertical  streaming  of  the  air, 
its  onward  movement,  all  gain  speed  of  motion  with  astonishing 
rapidity.  8.  In  a  minute  or  two  some  cubic  miles  of  air  are  in  a 
state  of  intense  gyratory  movement,  mounting  upwards  as  vio- 
lently as  the  gases  over  a  volcano.  9.  To  replace  this  strong 
whirling  uprush,  there  is  an  indraught  from  every  side  towards 
the  centre  of  the  whirlwind;  and  as  this  centre  moves  quickly 
forward,  the  rush  of  air  is  strongest  from  behind  towards   the 

30 


Paragraph' Structure,  31 

advancing  hurricane.  10.  The  rate  at  which  the  storm  goes  for- 
ward is  very  variable,  though  it  is  generally  as  much  as  forty  to 
one  hundred  miles  an  hour;  but  this  is  not  the  measure  of  its 
destructive  power.  11.  The  rending  effect  of  the  storm  is  much 
greater  than  would  be  given  by  a  simple  blast  of  air  moving  at 
this  speed.  12.  Much  of  this  peculiar  capacity  for  destruction 
may  perhaps  be  due  to  the  gyratory  motion  of  the  wind  in  the 
storm  centre,  which  on  one  side  of  the  whirlwind  adds  the  speed 
arising  from  its  circular  movement  to  the  translatory  velocity  of 
the  whirlwind  itself.  13.  Some  of  the  records  tell  us  that  houses 
with  closed  w^indows  have  been  known  to  burst  apart,  as  if  from 
an  explosion  of  gunpowder,  while  others,  that  had  their  doors  and 
windows  wide  open,  remained  essentially  unharmed.  14.  It  has 
been  conjectured  that  this  action  may  be  due  to  a  sadden  rarefac- 
tion of  the  air  on  the  outside  of  the  building ;  but  this  cause  cannot 
be  sufficient  to  produce  such  effects,  and  if  such  explosions  occur 
the  cause  must  be  looked  for  elsewhere.  15.  After  the  storm  is 
once  developed,  it  seems  very  quickly  to  acquire  its  maximum  of 
destructive  power  and  its  speed  of  translation.  16.  At  the  outset 
and  during  the  period  of  most  efficient  action,  the  strip  of  country 
affected  is  generally  very  narrow,  not  often  exceeding  a  mile  in 
width ;  as  the  storm  advances  the  path  seems  gradually  to  grow 
wider,  and  the  gyratory  movement  as  well  as  the  translatory  mo- 
tion of  the  meteor  less  considerable,  until  at  last  it  fades  into  an 
ordinary  thunder-storm,  or  dies  into  a  calm.  17.  Through  the 
whole  course  of  the  hurricane,  and  especially  during  its  closing 
stages,  there  is  generally  more  or  less  rain  and  hail.  —  Atlantic^ 
49 :  331. 

The  sentences  in  this  paragraph,  belong  together,  for  all 
treat  of  one  topic  —  the  tornado.  But  they  not  only  belong 
together,  they  belong  together  in  a  peculiar  way,  in  a 
particular  order.  Sentence  1  belongs  at  the  beginning. 
It  cannot  be  placed  anywhere  else  in  the  paragraph.  Sen- 
tence 11  must  come  after  sentence  10 ;  sentence  15  must 
come  before  sentence  16 ;  to  put  these  sentences  in  any  other 
order  would  throw  the  paragraph  into  confusion.  Again, 
the  sentences  of  this  paragraph  fall  into  groups,  each  group 


32  Composition-Rhetoric, 

treating  of  some  specific  part  of  the  topic.  Thus  sentences 
1-3  tell  of  what  happens  before  the  storm ;  sentences  4-6 
tell  of  its  beginning ;  sentences  7-9  tell  of  its  onward  move- 
ment; sentences  10-14  tell  of  its  destructive  power;  sen- 
tences 15-17  of  its  culmination  and  subsidence.  We  may 
even  make  an  outline  of  the  paragraph,  showing  just  what 
.  is  said  of  the  subject  in  each  part. 

A.  Before  the  storm  (1-3). 

a.    The  air  is  still. 

h.    The  sky  is  cloudless. 

B.  Beginning  of  the  storm  (4-6). 

a.    The  clouds  gather. 

h.   The  storm  is  organized. 

C.  The  advance  of  the  storm  (7-9). 

-  a.   The  speed  of  motion  increases. 

h.   The  whirling  movement  and  the  vertical  stream- 
ing grow  violent. 
c.    The  rush  of  air  is  strongest  from  behind. 

D.  The  destructive  power  of  the  storm  (10-14). 

a.  Its  capacity  for  destruction  is  due  both  to  the  for- 
ward movement  and  to  the  whirling  motion. 

h.  The  storm  bursts  open  houses  with  closed 
windows. 

E.  The  culmination  and  subsidence  of  the  storm  (15-17). 

a.    The  maximum  is  quickly  reached. 

h.   The  storm  increases  in  width  and  decreases  in 

speed, 
c.   The  closing  stages  are  accompanied  by  rain  and 

hail. 

1.  In  my  school-house,  ...  I  seem  to  see  the  square  most 
readily  in  the  Scotch  mist  which  so  often  filled  it,  loosening  the 
stones  and  choking  the  drains.  2.  There  was  then  no  rattle  of 
rain  against  my  window  sill,  nor  dancing  of  diamond  drops  on  the 
roofs,  but  blobs  of  ^ater  grew  on  the  panes  of  glass  to  reel  heavily 


Paragraph-StruGture,  33 

down  them.  3.  Then  the  sodden  square  would  have  shed  abun- 
dant tears  if  you  could  have  taken  it  in  your  hands  and  wrung  it 
like  a  dripping  cloth.  4.  At  such  a  time  the  square  would  be 
empty  but  for  one  vegetable-cart  left  in  the  care  of  a  lean  colly, 
which,  tied  to  the  wheel,  whined  and  shivered  underneath. 
5.  Pools  of  water  gather  in  the  coarse  sacks  that  have  been  spread 
over  the  potatoes  and  bundles  of  greens,  which  turn  to  manure  in 
their  lidless  barrels.  6.  The  eyes  of  the  whimpering  dog  never 
leave  a  black  close  over  which  hangs  the  sign  of  the  Bull,  probably 
the  refuge  of  the  hawker.  7.  At  long  intervals  a  farmer's  gig 
rumbles  over  the  bumpy,  ill-paved  square,  or  a  native,  with  his 
head  buried  in  his  coat,  peeps  out-of-doors,  skurries  across  the  way, 
and  vanishes.  8.  Most  of  the  leading  shops  are  here,  and  the 
decorous  draper  ventures  a  few  yards  from  the  pavement  to  scan 
the  sky,  or  note  the  effect  of  his  new  arrangement  in  scarfs. 
9.  Planted  against  his  door  is  the  butcher,  Renders  Todd,  white- 
aproned,  and  with  a  knife  in  his  hand,  gazing  interestedly  at  the 
draper,  for  a  mere  man  may  look  at  an  elder.  10.  The  tinsmith 
brings  out  his  steps,  and^  mounting  them,  stealthily  removes  the 
sauce-pans  and  pepper-pots  that  dangle  on  a  wire  above  his  sign- 
board. 11.  Pulling  to  his  door  he  shuts  out  the  foggy  light  that 
showed  in  his  solder-strewn  w^orkshop.  12.  The  square  is  deserted 
again.  13.  A  bundle  of  sloppy  parsley  slips  from  the  hawker's 
cart  and  topples  over  the  wheel  in  driblets.  14.  The  puddles  in 
the  sacks  overflow  and  run  together.  15.  The  dog  has  twisted  his 
chain  round  a  barrel,  and  yelps  sharply.  16.  As  if  in  response 
comes  a  rush  of  other  dogs.  17.  A  terrified  fox  terrier  tears  across 
the  square  with  half  a  score  of  mongrels,  the  butcher's  mastiff  and 
some  collies  at  his  heels ;  he  is  doubtless  a  stranger  who  has  in- 
sulted them  by  his  glossy  coat.  18.  For  two  seconds  the  square 
shakes  to  an  invasion  of  dogs,  and  then,  again,  there  is  only  one 
dog  in  sight.  —  Barrie  :  Auld  Liclit  Idylls^  chap.  I. 

The  selection  given  above  may  be  outlined  as  follows :  — 

A,   The  sodden  square  (1-3). 

a.    Seen  most  readily  in  the  Scotcli  mist. 
h.    The  mist  on  the  window, 
c.    The  mist  in  the  square. 


34  Composition- Rhetoric, 

B.  What  is  to  be  seen  in  the  square  (4-11). 

a.    The  vegetable  cart  and  the  colly. 
h.   Passers-by. 
c.    Shopkeepers. 

C.  What  happens  in  the  square  (12-18). 

a.  To  the  cart. 

b.  To  the  colly. 

c.  The  invasion  of  dogs. 


EXERCISE  7. 

Bead  carefully  the  following  paragraphs  and  v^^rite  out- 
lines showing  the  divisions  of  the  thought:  — 

The  cavaliers  found  Alvarado  unhorsed,  and  defending  himself 
with  a  poor  handful  of  followers  against  an  overwhelming  tide  of 
the  enemy.  His  good  steed,  which  had  borne  him  through  many 
a  hard  fight,  had  fallen  under  him.  He  was  himself  wounded  in 
several  places,  and  was  striving  in  vain  to  rally  his  scattered 
column,  which  was  driven  to  the  verge  of  the  canal  by  the  fury  of 
the  enemy,  then  in  possession  of  the  whole  rear  of  the  causeway, 
where  they  w^ere  reinforced  every  hour  by  fresh  combatants  from 
the  city.  The  artillery  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  engagement  had 
not  been  idle,  and  its  iron  shower,  sw'eeping  along  the  dike,  had 
mowed  down  the  assailants  by  hundreds.  But  nothing  could 
resist  their  impetuosity.  The  front  ranks,  pushed  on  by  those 
behind,  were  at  length  forced  up  to  the  pieces,  and,  pouring  over 
them  like  a  torrent,  overthrew  men  and  guns  in  one  general  ruin. 
The  resolute  charge  of  the  Spanish  cavaliers,  who  had  now  ar- 
rived, created  a  temporary  check,  and  gave  time  for  their  country- 
men to  make  a  feeble  rally.  But  they  were  speedily  borne  down 
by  the  returning  flood.  Cortes  and  his  companions  were  compelled 
to  plunge  again  into  the  lake,  —  though  all  did  not  escape.  Al- 
varado stood  on  the  brink  for  a  moment,  hesitating  what  to  do. 
Unhorsed,  as  he  was,  to  throw  himself  into  the  water,  in  the  face 
of  the  hostile  canoes  that  now  swarmed  around  the  opening,  af- 
forded but  a  desperate  chance  of  safety.  He  had  but  a  second  for 
thought.     He  was  a  man  of  powerful  frame,  and  despair  gave  him 


Paragraph- Structure,  85 

unnatural  energy.  Setting  his  long  lance  firmly  on  the  wreck  which 
strewed  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  he  sprang  forward  with  all  his 
might,  and  cleared  the  wide  gap  at  a  leap !  Aztecs  and  Tlascalans 
gazed  in  stupid  amazement,  exclaiming,  as  they  beheld  the  incredi- 
ble feat,  "  This  is  truly  the  Tonatiuh,  —  the  child  of  the  Sun !  " 
The  breadth  of  the  opening  is  not  given.  But  it  was  so  great  that 
the  valorous  Captain  Diaz,  who  well  remembered  tfce  place,  says 
the  leap  was  impossible  to  any  man.  Other  contemporaries,  how- 
ever, do  not  discredit  the  story.  It  was,  beyond  doubt,  matter  of 
popular  belief  at  the  time;  it  is  to  this  day  familiarly  known  to 
every  inhabitant  of  the  capital;  and  the  name  of  the  Salto  de 
AlvaradOy  "Alvarado's  Leap,"  given  to  the  spot,  still  commemo- 
rates an  exploit  which  rivalled  those  of  the  demi-gods  of  Grecian 
fable.  —  Prescott  :  Conquest  of  Mexico. 

'There  is  a  general  impression  in  England,  that  the  people  of 
the  United  States  are  inimical  to  the  parent  country.  It  is  one 
of  the  errors  which  have  been  diligently  propagated  by  designing 
writers.  There  is,  doubtless,  considerable  political  hostility,  and 
a  general  soreness  at  the  illiberality  of  the  English  press ;  but, 
generally  speaking,  the  prepossessions  of  the  people  are  strongly 
in  favor  of  England.  Indeed,  at  one  time,  they  amounted,  in 
many  parts  of  the  Union,  to  an  absurd  degree  of  bigotry^  The 
bare  name  of  Englishman  was  a  passport  to  the  confidence  and  hos- 
pitality of  every  family,  and  too  often  gave  a  transient  currency  to 
the  worthless  and  the  ungrateful.  Throughout  the  country  there 
was  something  of  enthusiasm  connected  with  the  idea  of  England. 
We  looked  to  it  with  a  hallowed  feeling  of  tenderness  and  venera- 
tion, as  the  land  of  our  forefathers  —  the  august  repository  of  the 
monuments  and  antiquities  of  our  race — the  birthplace  and  mau- 
soleum of  the  sages  and  heroes  of  our  paternal  history.  After  our 
own  country,  there  was  none  in  whose  glory  we  more  delighted  — 
none  whose  good  opinion  we  were  more  anxious  to  possess — none 
towards  which  our  hearts  yearned  with  such  throbbings  of  warm 
consanguinity.  Even  du/ring  the  late  war,  whenever  there  was 
the  least  opportunity  for  kind  feelings  to  spring  forth,  it  was  the 
delight  of  the  generous  spirits  of  our  country  to  show  that,  in  the 
midst  of  hostilities,  they  still  kept  alive  the  sparks  of  future  friend- 
ship. —  Irving  :  Sketch  Book.   , 


36  Composition- Rhetoric, 

The  old  South  rested  everything  on  slavery  and  agriculture, 
unconscious  that  these  could  neither  give  nor  maintain  healthy 
growth.  The  new  South  presents  a  perfect  democracy,  the  oli- 
garchs leading  in  the  popular  movement  —  a  social  system  compact 
and  closely  knitted,  less  splendid  on  the  surface,  but  stronger  at 
the  core  —  a  hundred  farms  for  every  plantation,  fifty  homes  for 
every  palace,  and  a  diversified  industry  that  meets  the  complex 
needs  of  this  complex  age.  The  new  South  is  enamoured  of  her 
new  work.  Her  soul  is  stirred  with  the  breath  of  a  new  life.  The 
light  of  a  grander  day  is  falling  fair  on  her  face.  She  is  thrilling 
with  the  consciousness  of  growing  power  and  prosperity.  As  she 
stands  upright,  full-statured  and  equal  among  the  people  of  the 
earth,  breathing  the  keen  air,  and  looking  out  upon  the  expanding 
horizon,  she  understands  that  her  emancipation  came  because  in 
the  inscrutable  wisdom  of  God  her  honest  purpose  was  crossed  and 
her  brave  armies  were  beaten.  —  Henry  W.  Grady  :  Speeches. 

It  is  the  general  testimony  of  Americans  who  have  lived  much  in 
England  that  appearances  are  deceptive,  and  that  the  greater 
share  of  flesh  and  color  possessed  by  our  transatlantic  cousins  is 
not  always  the  indication  of  better  health  or  greater  strength. 
Even  these  outward  attributes  are  not  always  the  result  of  English 
residence.  The  late  Rev.  William  Henry  Channing,  a  very  slender 
man,  used  to  lament,  on  his  occasional  visits  to  this,  his  native 
land,  that  long  years  of  English  life  had  not  given  him  an  added 
pound  of  flesh,  while  all  his  early  comrades  had  grown  stouter 
in  America.  But  even  where  these  externals  are  possessed,  they 
do  not  necessarily  indicate  any  other  physical  advantage.  Cer- 
tainly there  are  many  parallels  that  might  be  drawn,  in  Plutarch's 
fashion,  between  conspicuous  English  and  American  examples. 
Mr.  Gladstone  hardly  affords  a  more  striking  instance  of  prolonged 
intellectual  activity  than  did,  up  to  the  same  period  of  life,  the 
late  Mr.  Bancroft ;  and  certainly  the  dyspeptic  old  age  of  Carlyle 
and  the  perturbed  intellect  of  Ruskin  have  been  painfully  unlike 
the  serene  and  wholesome  declining  years  of  Whittier  and  Holmes. 
Among  younger  English  intellectual  workers,  it  is  understood  that 
Hamerton  must  live  in  France  for  his  health's  sake,  and  Symonds 
in  Italy,  and  Stevenson  in  Samoa,  while  Henley  is  mainly  known 
from  his  poems  written  in  a  hospital,  and  Kipling  is  mentioned  as 


Paragraph- Structure.  37 

already  broken  down  in  health.  Among  all  our  younger  Ameri- 
can men  of  letters  there  is  no  such  group  of  invalids.  Among 
women,  we  hear  of  Florence  Nightingale  as  wholly  invalided  for 
many  years,  while  our  own  Clara  Barton,  after  all  her  ordeal  in 
our  Civil  War,  —  an  ordeal  which,  if  less  intense  and  concentrated 
than  that  of  Florence  Nightingale,  was  far  more  prolonged,  —  is 
still  in  active  vigor,  and  always  ready,  on  a  click  of  the  telegraphic 
wire,  to  repair  to  any  scene  of  war  or  pestilence  or  inundation 
where  she  and  her  Red  Cross  are  needed.  Dorothea  Dix  also 
continued  her  active  and  unceasing  labors  until  well  into  the 
eighties.  Such  comparisons,  if  they  do  not  give  conclusive  evi- 
dence, yet  certainly  appeal  to  the  imagination,  and  set  one  think- 
ing. —  HiGGiNSON  :   Concerning  All  of  Us. 

\Never  since  literature  became  a  calling  in  England  had  it  been 
a  less  gainful  calling  than  at  the  time  when  Johnson  took  up  his 
residence  in  London.  In  the  preceding  generation  a  writer  of 
eminent  merit  was  sure  to  be  munificently  rewarded  by  the 
government.  The  least  that  he  could  expect  was  a  pension  or  a 
sinecure  place ;  and,  if  he  showed  any  aptitude  for  politics,  he 
might  hope  to  be  a  member  of  parliament,  a  lord  of  the  treasury, 
an  ambassador,  a  secretary  of  state.  It  would  be  easy,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  name  several  writers  of  the  nineteenth  century  of 
whom  the  least  successful  has  received  forty  thousand  pounds 
from  the  booksellers.  But  Johnson  entered  on  his  vocation  in 
the  most  dreary  part  of  the  dreary  interval  which  separated  two 
ages  of  prosperity.  Literature  had  ceased  to  flourish  under  the 
patronage  of  the  great,  and  had  not  begun  to  flourish  under  the 
patronage  of  the  public.  One  man  of  letters,  indeed.  Pope,  had 
acquired  by  his  pen  what  was  then  considered  as  a  handsome 
fortune,  and  lived  on  a  footing  of  equality  with  nobles  and 
ministers  of  state.  But  this  was  a  solitary  exception.  Even  an 
author  whose  reputation  was  established,  and  whose  works  were 
popular  —  such  an  author  as  Thomson,  whose  "Seasons"  w^ere  in 
every  library ;  such  an  author  as  Fielding,  whose  "•  Pasquin "  had 
had  a  greater  run  than  any  drama  since  the  "Beggar's  Opera"  — 
was  sometimes  glad  to  obtain,  by  pawning  his  best  coat,  the  means 
of  dining  on  tripe  at  a  cook-shop  underground,  where  he  could 
wipe  his  hands,  after  his  greasy  meal,  on  the  back  of  a  Newfound- 


38  Composition- Rhetoric, 

land  dog.  It  is  easy,  therefore,  to  imagine  what  humiliations  and 
privations  must  have  awaited  the  novice  who  had  still  to  earn 
a  name.  One  of  the  publishers  to  whom  Johnson  applied  for 
employment  measured  with  a  scornful  eye  that  athletic  though 
uncouth  frame,  and  exclaimed,  "You  had  better  get  a  porter's 
knot,  and  carry  trunks."  Nor  was  the  advice  bad,  for  a  porter 
was  as  likely  to  be  as  plentifully  fed  and  as  comfortably  lodged 
as  a  poet.  —  Macaulay  :  Johnson?) 

Few  people  take  the  trouble  of  trying  to  find  out  what  democ- 
racy really  is.  Yet  this  would  be  a  great  help,  for  it  is  our  lawless 
and  uncertain  thoughts,  it  is  the  indefiniteness  of  our  impressions, 
that  fill  darkness,  whether  mental  or  physical,  with  spectres  and 
hobgoblins.  Democracy  is  nothing  more  than  an  experiment  in 
government,  more  likely  to  succeed  in  a  new  soil,  but  likely  to  be 
tried  in  all  soils,  which  must  stand  or  fall  on  its  own  merits  as 
others  have  done  before  it.  For  there  is  no  trick  of  perpetual 
motion  in  politics  any  more  than  in  mechanics.  President  Lincoln 
defined  democracy  to  be  "  the  government  of  the  people  by  the 
people  for  the  people."  This  is  a  sufficiently  compact  statement 
of  it  as  a  political  arrangement.  Theodore  Parker  said  that 
"  Democracy  meant  not  '  I'm  as  good  as  you  are,'  but  '  You're  as 
good  as  I  am.'  "  And  this  is  the  ethical  conception  of  it,  necessary 
as  a  complement  of  the  other;  a  conception  which,  could  it  be 
made  actual  and  practical,  would  easily  solve  all  the  riddles  that 
the  old  sphinx  of  political  and  social  economy  who  sits  by  the 
roadside  has  been  proposing  to  mankind  from  the  beginning,  and 
which  mankind  have  shown  such  a  singular  talent  for  answering 
wrongly.  In  this  sense  Christ  was  the  first  true  democrat  that 
ever  breathed,  as  the  old  dramatist  Dekker  said  he  was  the  first 
true  gentleman.  The  characters  may  be  easily  doubled,  so  strong 
is  the  likeness  between  them.  A  beautiful  and  profound  parable 
of  the  Persian  poet  Jellaladeen  tells  us  that  "  One  knocked  at  the 
Beloved's  door,  and  a  voice  asked  from  within,  ^Who  is  there?' 
and  he  answered,  *  It  is  I.'  Then  the  voice  said,  *  This  house  will 
not  hold  me  and  thee';  and  the  door  was  not  opehed.  Then  went 
the  lover  into  the  desert,  and  fasted  and  prayed  in  solitude,  and 
after  a  year  he  returned  and  knocked  again  at  the  door;  and 
again  the  voice  asked,  *  Who  is  there  ? '  and  he  said,  *  It  is  thyself ' ; 


Paragraph- Structure,  39 

and  the  door  was  opened  to  him."  But  that  is  idealism,  you  will 
say,  and  this  is  an  only  too  practical  world.  I  grant  it ;  but  I  am 
one  of  those  who  believe  that  the  real  will  never  find  an  irremov- 
able basis  till  it  rests  on  the  ideal.  —  Lowell  :  Democracy. 

\_You  would  think  it  strange  if  I  called  Burns  the  most  gifted 
British  soul  we  had  in  all  that  century  of  his :  and  yet  I  believe 
the  day  is  coming  when  there  will  be  little  danger  in  saying  so. 
His  writings,  all  that  he  did  under  such  obstructions,  are  only  a  poor 
fragment  of  him.  Professor  Stewart  remarked  very  justly,  what, 
indeed,  is  true  of  all  Poets  good  for  much,  that  his  poetry  was  not 
any  particular  faculty,  but  the  general  result  of  a  naturally  vigorous 
original  mind  expressing  itself  in  that  way.  Burns's  gifts,  expressed 
in  conversation,  are  the  theme  of  all  that  ever  heard  him.  All  kinds 
of  gifts  :  from  the  gracefulest  utterances  of  courtesy,  to  the  highest 
fire  of  passionate  speech;  loud  floods  of  mirth,  soft  wailings  of 
affection,  laconic  emphasis,  clear,  piercing  insight ;  all  was  in  him. 
Witty  duchesses  celebrate  him  as  a  man  whose  speech  "  led  them 
off  their  feet."  This  is  beautiful;  but  still  more  beautiful  that 
which  Mr.  Lockhart  has  recorded,  which  I  have  more  than  once 
alluded  to.  How  the  waiters  and  ostlers  at  inns  would  get  out  of 
bed,  and  come  crowding  to  hear  this  man  speak!  Waiters  and 
ostlers ;  — they  too  were  men,  and  here  was  a  man  !  I  have  heard 
much  about  his  speech ;  but  one  of  the  best  things  I  ever  heard  of 
it  was,  last  year,  from  a  venerable  gentleman  long  familiar  with 
him.  That  it  was  speech  distinguished  by  always  having  something 
in  it.  "He  spoke  rather  little  than  much,"  this  old  man  told  me; 
^'  sat  rather  silent  in  those  early  days,  as  in  the  company  of  persons 
above  him;  and  always  when  he  did  speak,  it  was  to  throw  new 
light  on  the  matter."  I  know  not  why  anyone  should  ever  speak 
otherwise!  —  But  if  we  look  at  his  general  force  of  soul,  his  healthy 
robustness  every  way,  the  rugged  downrightness,  penetration,  gener- 
ous valour  and  manfulness  that  w^as  in  him,  —  when  shall  we  readily 
find  a  better-gifted  man  ?  —  Carlyle  :  Heroes  and  Hero-Worship'/^ 

The  paragraphs  in  Exercises  4  and  18  may  be  employed  for  further 
practice  if  needed. 

It  is  recommended  that  some  time  be  spent  upon  this  useful  exercise, 
enough  at  any  rate  to  convince  the  pupil  that  paragraphs,  whatever  they 
may  be,  are  not  mere  wayward  concatenations  of  sentences. 


40  Composition- Rhetoric. 


SUMMARY. 

In  outward  form  the  paragraph  is  a  group  of  sentences  set  off 
from  other  similar  groups  by  an  indention  of  the  first  word.  In 
internal  structure  the  paragraph  is  a  group  of  sentence-ideas  bear- 
ing upon  one  subject  and  arranged  in  an  orderly  way. 

In  writing  a  single  paragraph,  or  a  composition  made  up 
of  several  paragraphs,  the  pupil  needs  first  to  know  what 
ideas  to  select  and  what  means  to  employ  in  developing 
them.  Then  he  needs  to  know  how  to  choose  from  the 
great  variety  of  sentence-forms,  and  from  the  infinite  vari- 
ety of  words  and  expressions,  the  sentence-forms  and  the 
words  best  adapted  to  express  his  ideas.  He  needs  also  to 
learn  what  order  and  method  to  choose  in  presenting  his 
ideas.  Fourthly,  he  needs  to  learn  how  to  proportion  the 
parts  of  w^hat  he  writes,  according  to  their  relative  import- 
ance. And  fifthly,  he  needs  to  learn  how  to  keep  out  of  his 
composition  everything  that  does  not  belong  there ;  how  to 
make  his  composition  represent  his  thought  in  its  unity. 
In  otlier  words,  the  pupil  must  learn 

I.  What  to  say. 

II.  How  to  say  it. 

III.  In  what  order  to  say  it. 

ly.  How  much  to  say. 

V.  What  not  to  say. 


CHAPTER   III. 

^WHAT  TO   SAY.  / 

LESSON^  8. 

Selecting  a  Subject. 

To  discover  a  subject  on  which  to  write,  the  pupil  may  put 
to  himself  these  two  questions :  "  In  what  am  I  especially 
interested  ?  "  and,  "  In  what  are  the  persons  who  will  read 
or  hear  what  I  write,  especially  interested?'^  If  he  can 
find  anything  in  the  world  that  will  stand  as  answer  to  both 
these  questions,  he  has  a  good  subject,  whether  it  be  Base- 
ball, Roman  History,  Bicycles,  Stars,  or  Stamp-collecting. 
Anything  that  answers  but  one  of  these  questions  may  still 
be  a  good  subject,  for  he  may  be  able  to  interest  somebody 
else  in  what  interests  him,  or  he  may  himself  become  inter- 
ested in  what  interests  other  people.  But  a  subject  which 
is  interesting  neither  to  him  nor,  as  far  as  he  can  ascertain, 
to  those  about  him,  would  better  be  let  alone.  Fortunately 
the  world  is  full  of  interesting  things. 

In  selecting  a  subject  for  composition,  choose  what  is  interesting 
both  to  you  and  to  those  for  whom  you  write. 

EXERCISE  8. 

Write  in  a  column  ten  subjects  that  are  of  interest  to 
you.     Underline  those  which  in  your  opinion  are  of  interest 

41 


42  Composition- Rhetoric. 

to  others  as  well,  and  opposite  each  of  these  subjects  set 
down  the  person  or  class  of  persons  to  whom  you  think  it 
is  of  interest. 

EXERCISE  9. 

Write  a  list  of  ten  subjects  that  interest  others  but  do 
not  interest  you. 

EXERCISE  10. 

Write  ten  subjects  that  are  uninteresting  both  to  you  and 
to  others. 


LESSON  9. 
The  Paragraph-Theme, 

Everything  that  is  of  interest  both  to  the  pupil  and  to  his 
reader  is  a  good  subject  to  write  on,  but  not  every  such  sub- 
ject can  be  treated  in  a  single  paragraph.  Indeed,  most  of 
the  subjects  which  the  pupil  selects  at  first,  cannot  be  so 
treated.  They  are  subjects  like  "Originality,"  "Genius," 
"The  Future  of  Our  Country."  To  treat  adequately  one 
of  these  would  be  to  write  a  long  essay  or  even  a  large 
volume.  The  subject  of  a  paragraph  must  be  smaller. 
Thus  it  happens  that  after  the  student  has  selected  an  inter- 
esting subject  his  next  step  is  usually  to  narrow  it  until 
it  is  just  the  right  size  for  a  paragraph.  Instead  of  consid- 
ering the  subject  in  its  whole  extent,  he  considers  a  single 
side  or  phase  of  it.  Instead  of  considering  it  as  it  is  at  all 
times  and  in  all  places  and  under  all  conditions,  he  con- 
siders it  as  it  is  at  a  certain  time,  in  a  certain  place,  under 
certain  conditions. 

To  illustrate,  we  may  suppose  that  a  pupil  selects  as  his 
subject  "Amusements."  This  is  of  general  interest  but 
much  too  large  for  a  single  paragraph.     To  bring  it  within 


What  to  Say,  43 

proper  bounds  the  pupil  may  begin  by  limiting  it  in  time 
to  the  present.  It  thus  becomes  "  Amusements  of  the  Pres- 
ent Day."  If  a  limitation  of  place  be  made,  the  subject 
may  become,  "Amusements  in  the  United  States,"  or 
"Amusements  in  the  Place  where  I  Live,"  or  "Amuse- 
ments at  Our  School."  If  the  subject  is  still  too  large,  a 
particular  kind  of  amusement  may  be  chosen,  as  "  Games 
of  Physical  Strength  at  Our  School,"  or  "  Baseball  at  Our 
School."  While  these  are  subjects  not  too  broad  to  be 
treated  in  a  single  paragraph,  the  narrowing  process  may 
easily  be  carried  farther.  Por  example,  by  treating  baseball 
in  a  particular  way  the  pupil  may  derive  such  subjects  as 
"  How  the  Last  Game  of  Baseball  was  won,"  "  The  Last 
Game  of  Baseball  from  a  Girl's  Point  of  View,"  "  Catching 
a  Swift  Ball,"  "  Making  First  Base,"  "  Batting  an  In-curve," 
and  so  on. 

This  process  not  only  brings  the  subject  within  the  com- 
pass of  a  paragraph,  but  has  the  advantage  of  substituting  a 
definite  for  an  indefinite  subject  of  thought.  Thus  the  sub- 
ject, "Amusements,"  is  extremely  vague  and  unsuggestive. 
There  are  so  many  amusements  and  so  many  ways  in  which 
they  may  be  treated  that  the  writer  does  not  know  where 
to  begin  nor  what  to  say  about  them.  On  the  other  hand;, 
subjects  like  "How  I  learned  to  Skate,"  "Why  I  like  to 
Play  Tennis,"  are  definite  and  pointed,  and  to  those  who 
are  proficient  in  these  sports  suggest  almost  immediately 
something  interesting  to  say. 

A  properly  worded  theme  will  generally  reveal  not  only 
the  scope  of  the  writer's  treatment,  but  also  his  method,  not 
only  what  he  is  going  to  say,  but  how  he  is  going  to  say  it. 
Thus,  the  theme  "How  the  Game  was  won"  suggests  a 
story ;  "  A  View  of  the  Ball-ground  from  Above  "  suggests 
a  description ;  "  Tennis  vs.  Football "  prepares  us  for  argu- 
ment ;  and  "  Advantages  of  Bicycling  for  Girls  "  points  to 
an  expository  treatment. 


44  Composition-Rhetoric, 

A  general  subject  narrowed  to  the  point  where  it  expresses  just 
what  the  paragraph  is  to  contain  is  called  the  theme  or  topic  of  the 
paragraph.  The  theme  is  to  the  paragraph  what  the  seed  is  to  the 
plant :  it  is  the  paragraph  in  embryo. 


EXERCISE  11. 

[In  making  approaches  to  a  theme  by  narrowing  a  general 
subject,  beware  of  limitations  that  are  meaningless  or  mechanical. 
See  to  it  that  each  successive  modification  brings  the  subject 
nearer  —  nearer  to  you  personally,  and  nearer  to  your  readers. 
Select  a  time  in  which  you  are  interested,  a  place  with  which 
you  are  acquainted,  a  method  of  treatment  that  exactly  suits  your 
purpose.] 

Narrow  three  of  the  following  subjects  to  a  theme  by  limiting 
first  in  time,  second  in  place.  Make  successive  limitations  until 
the  subject  is  so  reduced  that  it  may  be  treated  in  a  single  para- 
graph. 

1.  Houses.  2.  Birds.  3.  Trees.  4.  Firearms.  5.  Trav- 
elling. 6.  Books.  7.  Queens.  8.  Lamps.  9.  Skating. 
10.  Money.    11.  Dogs.    12.  War.    13.  Churches.   14.  Elvers. 


EXERCISE  12. 

Narrow  three  of  the  following  subjects  to  a  paragraph  theme 
by  limiting  first  in  time,  second  in  place,  third  in  kind  or  class :  — 

1.  Boats.  2.  Schools.  3.  Poetry.  4.  Panics.  5.  Pish- 
ing. 6.  Inventions.  7.  Music.  8.  Animals.  9.  Arts. 
10.  Studies.  11.  Trades.  12.  Winds.  13.  Plowers. 
14.    Governments. 

EXERCISE  13. 

Narrow  three  of  the  following  subjects  to  a  theme  by  limiting 
first  in  time,  second  in  place,  third  in  kind,  fourth  in  method  of 
treatment :  — 


What  to  Say.  45 

I.  Athletic  Sports.  2.  Advertising.  3.  Wealth.  4.  In- 
dolence. 5.  Character.  6.  Manners  at  Table.  7.  Slavery. 
8.  Ambition.  9.  Humor.  10.  Work.  11.  Newspapers. 
12.    Wars.     13.   Eeligions.     14.   Novels. 

EXERCISE  14. 

Narrow  three  of  the  following  subjects  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
them  interesting  to  a  particular  reader  or  set  of  readers :  — 

1.  Hunting  —  to  a  girl. 

2.  Sewing  —  to  a  boy. 

3.  The  Moon  —  to  a  child  five  years  old. 

4.  This  Town  —  to  a  country  boy. 

5.  This  Town  —  to  a  manufacturer  seeking  a  location. 

6.  This  Town  —  to  a  retired  merchant. 

7.  Sunday  School  —  to  a  newsboy. 

8.  High  School  —  to  grammar  school  pupils. 

9.  Reading  —  to  a  busy  man. 

10.    History  —  to  a  reader  of  novels. 

II.  Early  Eising  —  to  a  lazy  person. 

12.  Latin  —  to  one  opposed  to  studying  it. 

13.  School  Work  —  to  a  physician. 

14.  The  Beaver  —  to  a  carpenter. 

15.  Foreign  Missions  —  to  business  men. 

16.  Algebra  —  to  a  friend  who  has  never  studied  it. 

17.  Farm  Life  —  to  a  city  boy. 

18.  Housekeeping  —  to  a  boy. 

19.  Politics  —  to  a  girl. 

EXERCISE  15. 

From  any  one  of  the  following  subjects,  by  making  such  limita 
tions  as  occur  to  you,  draw  out  six  good  themes  :  — 

\JL;   Storms.      2.    Electricity.     3.   Pictures.     4.   Vacation. 
5.    The   War  with   Mexico.      6.    The   English   Language. 


46  Composition- Rhetoric. 

7.  Longfellow.  8.  Lowell.  9.  Whittier.  10.  Irving. 
11.  Tennyson.  12.  Manufacturing.  13.  Coal-mining. 
14.  Sports.  15.  Music.  16.  Dancing.  17.  Foreigners. 
18.   Voting.     19.   Bees.     20.   Pets. 

EXERCISE  16. 

The  teacher  assigns  to  the  class  a  general  subject  to  be  narrowed 
in  as  many  ways  as  possible.  At  the  close  of  the  allotted  time  — 
perhaps  five  minutes  —  the  themes  are  read  and  criticised.  In 
such  exercises,  it  is  profitable  to  note,  first,  which  member  of  the 
class  has  the  longest  list ;  second,  which  member  of  the  class  has 
hit  upon  the  topic  of  greatest  interest. 


LESSON  10. 

The  Title. 

Nearly  related  to  the  theme  is  the  title  or  heading.  Placed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  paragraph,  though  separate  from  it, 
the  title  is  a  brief  announcement  of  the  paragraph-theme. 
It  may  be  looked  upon  as  an  advertisement  of  the  contents 
of  the  paragraph.  Like  other  advertisements,  it  serves  its 
purpose  best  when  it  is  short  and  suggestive.  A  good  title 
will  excite  the  curiosity  of  the  reader  and  allure  him  to  read, 
but  it  will  not  promise  more  information  or  enjoyment  than 
the  paragraph  can  supply. 

Effective  titles  are  often  drawn  from  a  chance  word  or 
phrase  in  the  paragraph,  but  this  practice  is  not  to  be  com- 
mended ;  the  best  titles  are  those  which  are  drawn  from  the 
paragraph-theme.  Thus  if  the  theme  of  a  paragraph  is 
"  Baseball  at  Our  School,"  the  title  might  be,  "  Our  Nine  "  ; 
if  the  theme  is  "  Incident  of  a  Fishing  Excursion  in  North- 
ern Michigan  Last  July,"  the  title  might  be  "My  Eirst 
Trout."  A  concisely  worded  theme,  if  not  too  long,  may 
generally  be  made  to  do  duty  as  a  title.     "  Baseball  at  Our 


What  to  Say.  47 

School  'Ms  a  good  title,  but  "  Incident  of  a  Fishing  Excur- 
sion in  Northern  Michigan  Last  July"  is  longer  than  a 
title  should  be. 

The  title  of  the  paragraph  should  he  a  brief  and  suggestive 
advertisement  of  the  theme.  It  should  not  promise  more  than 
the  paragraph  can  fulfil. 

EXERCISE  vj. 

Re-state  the  following  themes  briefly  as  titles  :  — 

1.  The  use  of  balloons  in  time  of  war  for  spying  the 
enemy's  movements. 

2.  Industry  is  the  lesson  to  be  learned  of  the  ant. 

3.  The  life  of  the  colored  iield-hands  in  the  South  before 
the  war. 

4.  A  diploma  from  a  city  high  school  should  admit  the 
holder  to  college. 

5.  A  free  public  library  sustained  by  general  taxation 
should  be  maintained  in  every  community. 

6.  The  treatment  of  the  Indian  by  the  government  has 
been  unjust. 

7.  A  description  of  a  two-weeks  visit  to  the  World's 
Fair  at  Chicago. 

8.  A  description  of  the  process  by  which  a  city  news- 
paper is  made. 

9.  A  narrative  of  the  early  years  of  General  Grant. 

10.  A  narrative  of  the  journey  made  by  Lieutenant 
Peary's  expedition  to  the  North. 

EXERCISERS. 

Find  suitable  titles  for  the  following  selections :  — 

TsiSydney  Smith  once  alluded,  if  I  remember  rightly,  to  a  pe^'son 
wlio  allowed  himself  to  speak  disrespectfully  of  the  equator.     I 


48  Composition-Rhetoric. 

have  a  strong  objection  to  be  suspected  of  flattering  the  equator. 
Yet  were  it  not  for  that  little  angle  of  23°  27'  26",  which  it  is 
good  enough  to  make  with  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  the  history  of 
this  earth  and  of  "  all  which  it  inherit "  would  have  been  essen- 
tially modified,  even  if  it  had  not  been  altogether  a  blank.  Out 
of  the  obliquity  of  the  equator  has  come  forth  our  civilization. 
It  was  long  ago  observed  by  one  of  the  most  thoughtful  writers 
that  ever  dealt  with  human  history,  John  von  Herder,  that  it  was 
to  the  gradual  shading  away  of  zones  and  alternation  of  seasons 
that  the  vigor  and  variety  of  man  were  attributable.  —  Motley: 
Historic  Progress  and  American  Democracy. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  part  of  the  world,  certainly  none  familiar 
to  science,  where  the  early  geological  periods  can  be  studied  with 
so  much  ease  and  precision  as  in  the  United  States.  Along  their 
northern  borders,  between  Canada  and  the  United  States,  there 
runs  the  low  line  of  hills  known  as  the  Laurentian  Hills.  Insig- 
nificant in  height,  nowhere  rising  more  than  fifteen  hundred  or 
two  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  these  are  nevertheless 
the  first  mountains  that  broke  the  uniform  level  of  the  earth's 
Surface,  and  lifted  themselves  above  the  waters.  Their  low  stat- 
ure, as  compared  with  that  of  other  more  lofty  mountain-ranges, 
is  in  accordance  with  an  invariable  rule,  by  which  the  relative  age 
of  mountains  may  be  estimated.  The  oldest  mountains  are  the 
lowest,  while  the  younger  and  more  recent  ones  tower  above  their 
elders,  and  are  usually  more  torn  and  dislocated  also.  This  is 
easily  understood  when  we  remember  that  all  mountains  and 
mountain-chains  are  the  result  of  upheavals,  and  that  the  violence 
bf  the  outbreak  must  have  been  in  proportion  to  the  strength  of 
the  resistance.  When  the  crust  of  the  earth  was  so  thin  that  the 
heated  masses  within  easily  bi^oke  through  it,  they  were  not 
thrown  to  so  great  a  height,  and  formed  comparatively  low  ele- 
vations, such  as  the  Canadian  hills,  or  the  mountains  of  Bretagne 
and  Wales.  But  in  later  times,  when  young,  vigorous  giants,  such 
as  the  Alps,  the  Himalayas,  or,  later  still,  the  Bocky  Mountains, 
forced  their  way  out  from  their  fiery  prison-house,  the  crust  of 
the  earth  was  much  thicker,  and  fearful  indeed  must  have  been 
the  convulsions  which  attended  their  exit.  —  Agassiz  :  Geological 
Sketches. 


What  to  Say,  49 

Aristides  at  first  was  loved  and  respected  for  his  surname  of  the 
Just,  and  afterwards  envied  as  much;  the  latter  chiefly  by  the 
management  of  Themistocles,  who  gave  it  out  among  the  people 
that  Aristides  had  abolished  the  courts  of  judicature,  by  drawing 
the  arbitration  of  all  causes  to  himself,  and  so  was  insensibly 
gaining  sovereign  power,  though  without  guards  and  the  other 
ensigns  of  it.  The  people,  elevated  with  the  late  victory  at  Mara- 
thon, thought  themselves  capable  of  everything,  and  the  highest 
respect  little  enough  for  them.  Uneasy,  therefore,  at  finding  any 
one  citizen  rose  to  such  extraordinary  honor  and  distinction,  they 
assembled  at  Athens  from  all  the  towns  in  Attica,  and  banished 
Aristides  by  the  ostracism;  disguising  their  envy  of  his  character 
under  the  specious  pretence  of  guarding  against  tyranny.  .  .  . 

The  Ostracism  (to  give  a  summary  account  of  it)  was  conducted 
in  the  following  manner.  Every  citizen  took  a  piece  of  a  broken 
pot,  or  a  shell,  on  which  he  wrote  the  name  of  the  person  he 
wanted  to  have  banished,  and  carried  it  to  a  part  of  the  market- 
place that  was  enclosed  with  wooden  rails.  The  magistrates  then 
counted  the  number  of  the  shells;  and  if  it  amounted  not  to  six 
thousand,  the  ostracism  stood  for  nothing :  if  it  did,  they  sorted 
the  shells,  and  the  person  whose  name  was  found  on  the  greatest 
number,  was  declared  an  exile  for  ten  years,  but  with  permission 
to  enjoy  his  estate. 

At  the  time  that  Aristides  was  banished,  when  the  people  were 
inscribing  the  names  on  the  shells,  it  is  reported  that  an  illiterate 
burgher  came  to  Aristides,  whom  he  took  for  some  ordinary  person, 
and,  giving  him  his  shell,  desired  him  to  write  Aristides  upon  it. 
The  good  man,  surprised  at  the  adventure,  asked  him  "whether 
Aristides  had  ever  injured  him  ?  "  "  No,"  said  he,  "  nor  do  I  even 
know  him;  but  it  vexes  me  to  hear  him  everywhere  called  the  Just." 
Aristides  made  no  answer,  but  took  the  shell,  and  having  written 
his  own  name  upon  it,  returned  it  to  the  man.  When  he  quitted 
Athens,  he  lifted  up  his  hands  towards  heaven,  and,  agreeably  to 
his  character,  made  a  prayer,  very  different  from  that  of  Achilles ; 
namely,  "  That  the  people  of  Athens  might  never  see  the  day  which 
should  force  them  to  remember  Aristides." — Plutarch  :  Lives.  A 

Said  Tom,  "  If  I  can't  be  at  Rugby,  I  want  to  be  at  workju  tnje 
world,  and  not  dawdling  away  three  years  at  Oxford." 


50  Oompositioyi-Rhetoric. 

"What  do  you  mean  by  'at  work  in  the  world'?'*  said  the 
master,  pausing,  with  his  lips  close  to  his  saucerful  of  tea,  and 
peering  at  Tom  over  it. 

"Well,  I  mean  real  work;  one's  profession,  whatever  one  will 
have  really  to  do,  and  make  one's  living  by.  I  want  to  be  doing 
some  real  good,  feeling  that  1  am  not  only  at  play  in  the  world," 
answered  Tom,  rather  puzzled  to  find  out  himself  what  he  really 
did  mean. 

"You  are  mixing  up  two  very  different  things  in  your  head,  I 
think,  Brow^n,"  said  the  master,  putting  down  the  empty  saucer, 
"  and  you  ought  to  get  clear  about  them.  You  talk  of  '  woiking  to 
get  your  living '  and  *  doing  some  real  good  in  the  world,'  in  the 
same  breath.  ^N'ow,  you  may  be  getting  a  very  good  living  in  a 
profession,  and  yet  doing  no  good  at  all  in  the  world,  but  quite 
the  contrary,  at  the  same  time.  Keep  the  latter  before  you  as 
your  one  object,  and  you  will  be  right,  whether  you  make  a  living 
or  not;  but  if  you  dwell  on  the  other,  you'll  very  likely  drop  into 
mere  money-making,  and  let  the  world  take  care  of  itself,  for  good 
or  evil.  Don't  be  in  a  hurry  about  finding  your  w^ork  in  the  world 
for  yourself ;  you  are  not  old  enough  to  judge  for  yourself  yet,  but 
just  look  about  you  in  the  place  you  find  yourself  in,  and  try  to 
make  things  a  little  better  and  honester  there.  You'll  find  plenty 
to  keep  your  hand  in  at  Oxford,  or  wherever  else  you  go.  And 
don't  be  led  away  to  think  this  part  of  the  world  important  and 
that  unimportant.  Every  corner  of  the  world  is  important.  No 
man  knows  whether  this  part  or  that  is  most  so,  but  every  man 
may  do  some  honest  work  hi  his  own  corner."  And  then  the 
good  man  went  on  to  talk  wisely  to  Tom  of  the  sort  of  work  which 
he  might  take  up  as  an  undergTaduate ;  and  warned  him  of  the 
prevalent  university  sins,  and  explained  to  him  the  many  and 
great  differences  between  university  and  school  life ;  till  the  twilight 
changed  into  darkness,  and  they  heard  the  truant  servants  stealing 
in  by  the  back  entrance.  —  Hughes  :  Tom  Brown's  School  Days. 

About  six  o'clock,  on  a  fine  morning  in  the  summer,  I  set  out 
from  Philadelphia,  on  a  visit  to  a  friend,  at  the  distance  of  fifteen 
miles;  and,  passing  a  brook  where  a  gentleman  was  angling,  T 
inquired  if  he  had  caught  anything.  "  No,  sir,"  said  he,  "  I  have 
not  been  here  long;  only  two  hours."     I  wished  him  a  good  morn- 


What  to  Say.  51 

ing,  and  pursued  my  journey.  On  my  return  in  the  evening,  I 
found  him  fixed  to  the  identical  spot  where  I  had  left  him,  and 
again  inquired  if  he  had  had  any  sport.  "Very  good,  sir,"  said 
he.  "Caught  a  great  many  fish?"  "None  at  all."  "  Had  a  great 
many  bites,  though,  I  suppose?"  "Not  one,  but  I  had  a  most 
glorious  nibble."  —  Frankun.  i 

The  question  has  been  much  discussed,  whether  there  was  any 
statesmanship,  any  good  sense,  in  making  the  war  of  1812  at  all. 
It  is  true  that  it  was  resolved  upon  without  preparation,  and  that 
it  was  wretchedly  managed.  But  if  war  is  ever  justified,  there 
was  ample  provocation  for  it.  The  legitimate  interests  of  the 
United  States  had  been  trampled  upon  by  the  belligerent  powers, 
as  if  entitled  to  no  respect.  The  American  flag  had  been  treated 
with  a  contempt  scarcely  conceivable  now.  The  question  was 
whether  the  American  people  should  permit  themselves  not  only 
to  be  robbed,  and  maltreated,  and  insulted,  but  also  to  be  de- 
spised, —  all  this  for  the  privilege  of  picking  up  the  poor  crumbs 
of  trade  which  the  great  powers  of  Europe  w^ould  still  let  them 
have.  When  a  nation  knowingly  and  willingly  accepts  the  con- 
tempt of  others,  it  is  in  danger  of  losing  also  its  respect  for  itself. 
Against  this  the  national  pride  of  Young  America  rose  in  revolt. 
When  insulted  too  grievously,  it  felt  an  irresistible  impulse  to 
strike.  It  struck  wildly,  to  be  sure,  and  received  ugly  blows  in 
return.  But  it  proved;  after  all,  that  this  young  democracy  could 
not  be  trampled  upon  with  impunity,  that  it  felt  an  insult  as 
keenly  as  older  nations,  and  that  it  was  capable  of  risking  a  fight 
with  the  most  formidable  power  on  earth  in  resenting  it.  It 
proved,  too,  that  this  most  formidable  power  might  find  in  the 
young  democracy  a  very  uncomfortable  antagonist.  —  Schurz  : 
Henry  Clay,  I,  119. 

The  paragraphs  in  Exercises  4,  7,  and  19  may  be  employed  for  further 
practice  if  needed. 


52  CompositiorirRhetoric, 

LESSOR  11. 

The  Topic- Sentence, 

Writing  a  letter  to  a  friend  upon  some  topic  of  which  he 
as  yet  knows  nothing,  we  naturally  begin  by  telling  him 
what  it  is  we  are  going  to  write  about.  For  this  purpose  we 
generally  use  the  opening  sentence  of  the  letter.  Thus,  an 
account  of  a  fishing  excursion  might  begin,  "  I  am  going  to 
tell  you  about  how  I  went  fishing  Saturday/'  or,  "Last 
Saturday  I  went  fishing."  The  writer  of  a  paragraph  often 
makes  use  of  a  similar  device.  Somewhere  in  the  para- 
graph, usually  at  the  beginning,  he  writes  a  sentence 
announcing  his  theme.  Such  a  sentence  is  called  a  topic- 
sentence.  In  the  following  selections  the  topic-sentences 
are  in  italics :  — 

On  the  southern  hank  of  the  Danube,  about  sixteen  miles  above 
Vienna,  stands  the  ancient  castle  of  Greifenstein,  where  — if  the  tale 
be  true,  though  many  doubt,  and  some  deny  it  —  Richard  the  Lion-heart 
of  England  was  imprisoned,  when  returning  from  the  third  crusade. 
It  is  built  upon  the  summit  of  a  steep  and  rocky  hill,  that  rises 
just  far  enough  from  the  river's  brink  to  leave  a  foothold  for  the 
highway.  At  the  base  of  the  hill  stands  the  village  of  Greifen- 
stein,  from  which  a  winding  pathway  leads  you  to  the  old  castle. 
You  pass  through  an  arched  gate  into  a  narrow  courtyard,  and 
thence  onward  to  a  large,  square  tower.  Near  the  doorway,  and 
deeply  cut  into  the  solid  rock,  upon  which  the  castle  stands,  is 
the  form  of  a  human  hand,  so  perfect  that  your  own  lies  in  it  as 
in  a  mould.  And  hence  the  name  of  Greifenstein.  In  the  square 
tower  is  Richard's  prison,  completely  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the 
castle.  A  wooden  staircase  leads  up  on  the  outside  to  a  light 
balcony,  running  entirely  round  the  tower,  not  far  below  its 
turrets.  From  this  balcony  you  enter  the  prison,  —  a  small,  square 
chamber,  lighted  by  two  Gothic  windows.  The  walls  of  the  tower 
are  some  five  feet  thick;  and  in  the  pavement  is  a  trap-door, 
opening  into  a  dismal  vault,  —  a  vast  dungeon,  which  occupies  all 


What  to  Say,  53 

the  lower  part  of  the  tower,  quite  down  to  its  rocky  foundations, 
and  which  formerly  had  no  entrance  but  the  trap-door  above.  In 
one  corner  of  the  chamber  stands  a  large  cage  of  oaken  timber, 
in  vvhich  the  royal  prisoner  is  said  to  have  been  shut  up  —  the 
grossest  lie  that  ever  cheated  the  gaping  curiosity  of  a  traveller.  — 
Longfellow  :  Outre-mer,  272. 

/  made  a  laughable  mistake  this  morning  in  giving  alms.  A  man 
stood  on  the  shady  side  of  the  street  with  his  hat  in  his  hand,  and 
as  I  passed  he  gave  me  a  piteous  look,  though  he  said  nothing. 
He  had  such  a  woe-begone  face,  and  such  a  threadbare  coat,  that 
I  at  once  took  him  for  one  of  those  mendicants  who  bear  the  title 
oi  poveri  vergognosi,  —  bashful  beggars;  persons  whom  pinching 
want  compels  to  receive  the  stranger's  charity,  though  pride 
restrains  them  from  asking  it.  Moved  with  compassion,  I  threw 
into  the  hat  the  little  I  had  to  give ;  when,  instead  of  thanking 
me  with  a  blessing,  my  man  with  the  threadbare  coat  showered 
upon  me  the  most  sonorous  maledictions  of  his  native  tongue,  and, 
emptying  his  greasy  hat  upon  the  pavement,  drew  it  down  over 
his  ears  with  both  hands,  and  stalked  away  with  all  the  dignity  of 
a  Roman  senator  in  the  best  days  of  the  republic,  —  to  the  infinite 
amusement  of  a  green-grocer,  who  stood  at  his  shop-door  bursting 
with  laughter.  'No  time  was  given  me  for  an  apology ;  but  I  re- 
solved to  be  for  the  future  more  discriminating  in  my  charities, 
and  not  to  take  for  a  beggar  every  poor  gentleman  who  chose  to 
stand  in  the  shade  with  his  hat  in  his  hand  on  a  hot  summer's 
day.  —  Longfellow  :  Outre-mer,   248. 

Although  the  topic-sentence  is  most  often  found  at  the 
very  beginning  of  the  paragraph,  as  in  the  foregoing  illus- 
trations, cases  not  infrequently  occur  in  which  a  not  indis- 
pensable phrase,  clause,  or  even  sentence  of  introduction 
precedes  the  statement  of  the  topic.  A  phrase  of  intro- 
duction (in  italics)  is  seen  in  each  of  the  following :  — 

After  all,  Germany  must  be  a  pretty  good  country.  The  latest 
statistics,  giving  the  percentage  of  illiteracy,  show  that  out  of 
every  thousand  there   are  found   only   sixteen   who    are   unable 


54  Composition'Rhetoric. 

to   read  satisfactorily  or  write   their   names   intelligently.  -^  The 
Lutheran  World. 

On  the  whole,  his  youth  was  sad  enough.  An  exemplary  son, 
he  saw  his  beloved  parents  grow  old  in  poverty  on  his  account, 
and  from  a  sense  of  duty  he  abstained  from  all  pleasures  and  dis- 
tractions; sometimes  even  asked  himself,  shudderingly,  whether 
he  had  not  missed  his  career,  and  what  was  to  become  of  him. — 
COPPEE  :   I'he  Christmas  Betrothal. 

In  the  face  of  tendencies  apparently  becoming  dominant  in  this 
country  and  which,  if  not  checked,  ivill  in  the  end  subordinate  the  in- 
telligence, honesty,  and  industry  of  the  many  to  the  self-interest  of  a 
few,  it  is  w^holesome  to  pause  and  recur  to  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  Jefferson,  adherence  to  which  will  keep  government  and 
the  social  order  in  the  control  of  the  judgment  of  the  many,  which 
in  the  last  analysis  is  always  disinterested,  safe,  and  sound. — 
Letter  of  Judge  Gaynor,  quoted  in  The  Literary  Digest,  10 :  753. 

A  clause  of  introduction  (in  italics)  is  seen  in  the  follow- 
ing:  — 

Though  his  materials  are  often  exotic,  in  style  Southey  aimed  at 
the  simplicity  and  strength  of  undefiled  English.  If  to  these 
melody  was  added,  he  had  attained  all  he  desired.  To  conversa- 
tions wuth  William  Taylor  about  German  poetry — certainly  not 
to  Taylor's  example  —  he  ascribes  his  faith  in  the  power  of  plain 
words  to  express  in  poetry  the  highest  thoughts  and  strongest 
feelings.  He  perceived,  in  his  own  day,  the  rise  of  the  ornate 
style,  which  has  since  been  perfected  by  Tennyson,  and  he  re- 
garded it  as  a  vice  in  art.  — Dowden  :  Robert  Southey. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of  the  new  King,  he  was  evi- 
dently not  of  the  ruling  class,  the  Populus  Romanus,  and  for  this 
reason  his  sympathies  were  naturally  with  the  Plebeians,  or,  as 
they  would  now  be  called,  the  commons.  The  long  reign  of  Ser- 
vius  was  marked  by  the  victories  of  peace,  etc.  —  Oilman  :  The 
Story  of  Rome. 

A  somewhat  longer  introduction,  of  satirical  character, 
is  seen  in  the  following :  — 


What  to  Say,  55 

It  may  seem  almost  incredible  to  modern  ears^  hut  the  evidence  of 
antiquity  seems  to  point  to  the  fact  that  football  was  once  played  sim- 
ply for  amusement.  Innocent  individuals,  as  soon  as  their  day's 
work  was  ended,  met  together  to  find  exercise  and  relaxation  in 
kicking  about  a  ball.  The  pastime  was  a  vigorous  and  healthy 
one,  and  no  doubt  many  energetic  young  townspeople  looked  for- 
ward annually  with  delight  to  their  Shrovetide  football  match.  — 
Fortnightly  Review^  55  :  25. 

In  the  following  a  whole  sentence  of  introduction  pre- 
cedes the  topic-sentence :  — 

The  Puritans  espoused  the  cause  of  civil  liberty  mainly  because 
it  was  the  cause  of  religion.  There  was  another  party,  by  no  means 
numerous,  but  distinguished  by  learning  and  ability,  which  co-oper- 
ated with  them  on  very  different  principles.  We  speak  of  those 
whom  Cromwell  was  accustomed  to  call  the  Heathens,  men  who 
were,  in  the  phraseology  of  that  time,  doubting  Thomases  or  careless 
Gallios  with  regard  to  religious  subjects,  but  passionate  worship- 
pers of  freedom.  Heated  by  the  study  of  ancient  literature,  they 
set  up  their  country  as  their  idol,  and  proposed  to  themselves  the 
heroes  of  Plutarch  as  their  examples.  They  seem  to  have  borne 
some  resemblance  to  the  Brissotines  of  the  French  Revolution. 
But  it  is  not  very  easy  to  draw  the  line  of  distinction  between 
them  and  their  devout  associates,  whose  tone  and  manner  they 
sometimes  found  it  convenient  to  affect,  and  sometimes,  it  is  prob- 
able, imperceptibly  adopted.  —  Macaulay  :  Essay  on  Milton. 

In  the  following,  the  topic-sentence  is  preceded  by  two 
introductory  sentences :  — 

You  of  the  North  have  had  drawn  for  you  with  a  master's 
hand  the  picture  of  your  returning  armies.  You  have  heard  how, 
in  the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  war,  they  came  back  to  you, 
marching  with  proud  and  victorious  tread,  reading  their  glory  in 
a  nation's  eyes !  Will  you  bear  with  me  while  I  tell  you  of  an- 
other army  that  sought  its  home  at  the  close  of  the  late  war  —  an 
army  that  marched  home  in  defeat  and  not  in  victory,  in  pathos 
and  not  in  splendor,  but  in  glory  that  equaled  yours,  and  to  hearts 


56  Composition-Rhetoric, 

as  loving  as  ever  welcomed  heroes  home  ?  Let  me  picture  to  you 
the  foot-sore  Confederate  soldier,  as,  buttoning  up  in  his  faded 
gray  jacket  the  parole  which  was  to  bear  testimony  to  his  chil- 
dren of  his  fidelity  and  faith,  he  turned  his  face  southward  from 
Appomattox,  in  April,  1865.  Think  of  him  as,  ragged,  half -starved, 
heavy-hearted,  enfeebled  by  want  and  wounds,  having  fought  to 
exhaustion,  he  surrenders  his  gun,  wrings  the  hands  of  his  com- 
rades in  silence,  and  lifting  his  tear-stained  and  pallid  face  for  the 
last  time  to  the  graves  that  dot  the  old  Virginia  hills,  pulls  his 
gray  cap  over  his  brow  and  begins  the  slow  and  painful  journey. 
What  does  he  find  —  let  me  ask  you,  who  went  to  your  homes 
eager  to  find  in  the  welcome  you  had  justly  earned,  full  payment 
for  four  years'  sacrifice  —  what  does  he  find  when,  having  fol- 
lowed the  battle-stained  cross  against  overwhelming  odds,  dread- 
ing death  not  half  so  much  as  surrender,  he  reaches  the  home  he 
left  so  prosperous  and  beautiful  ?  He  finds  his  house  in  ruins,  his 
farm  devastated,  his  slaves  free,  his  stock  killed,  his  barns  empty, 
his  trade  destroyed,  his  money  worthless ;  his  social  system,  feu- 
dal in  its  magnificence,  swept  away;  his  people  without  law  or 
legal  status,  his  comrades  slain,  and  the  burdens  of  others  heavy 
on  his  shoulders.  Crushed  by  defeat,  his  very  traditions  are  gone ; 
without  money,  credit,  employment,  material,  or  training;  and 
beside  all  this,  confronted  with  the  gravest  problem  that  ever  met 
human  intelligence  —  the  establishing  of  a  status  for  the  vast  body 
of  his  liberated  slaves.  —  Grady  :  Speeches. 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  the  introduction  is  so  long  that 
the  topic-sentence  is  delayed  until  the  middle  of  the  para- 
graph. The  following  will  illustrate;  the  topic-sentence 
being  here  italicized :  — 

It  has  been  justly  observed  that  Shakespeare  shows  much 
judgment  in  the  naming  of  his  plays.  From  this  observation, 
however,  several  critics,  as  Gildon  and  Schlegel,  have  excepted 
the  play  in  hand,  pronouncing  the  title  a  misnomer,  on  the  ground 
that  Brutus  and  not  Csesar,  is  the  hero  of  it.  It  is  indeed  true 
that  Brutus  is  the  hero ;  nevertheless  I  must  insist  upon  it  that 
the  play  is  rightly  named,  inasmuch  as  Caesar  is  not  only  the  subject 
but  also  the  governing  power  of  it  throughout.     He  is  the  centre 


What  to  Say.  5T 

and  spring-head  of  the  entire  action,  giving  law  and  shape  to 
everything  that  is  said  and  done.  This  is  manifestly  true  in  what 
occurs  before  his  death ;  and  it  is  true  in  a  still  deeper  sense  after- 
wards, since  his  genius  then  becomes  the  Keniesis  or  retributive 
Providence  presiding  over  the  whole  course  of  the  drama.  — Hud- 
son :  Introduction  to  school  edition  of  Shakespeare's  Julius  Ccesar. 

Notice  that  the  phrase,  clause,  or  sentence  of  introduction  is  fre- 
quently in  contrast  with  the  idea  of  the  topic-sentence,  or  states  a 
preliminary  concession.  Point  out  instances  of  this  in  the  nine  pre- 
ceding selections. 

It  now  and  then  happens  that  the  topic-sentence  does 
not  appear  until  the  very  end  of  the  paragraph  is  reached. 
This  case  arises  when  the  writer  wishes  to  keep  ns  in  sus- 
pense ;  or  when,  wishing  to  prove  that  something  is  true, 
he  first  states  his  proofs  and  then  draws  a  conclusion  from 
them  —  the  conclusion  being  the  topic. 

When  the  supply  of  anything  exceeds  the  demand  for  it,  each 
person  who  wishes  to  sell  the  particular  thing  will  be  afraid  that 
his  stock  of  it  will  be  the  portion  of  the  supply  which  the  demand 
will  not  reach.  He  will,  therefore,  put  down  his  prices  in  order 
to  induce  buyers  to  take  his  wares  instead  of  those  of  his  neighbor. 
Each  seller  will  do  this,  consequently  general  prices  will  fall.  If 
there  is  a  demand  for  nine  brooms,  and  a  supply  of  ten,  each 
broom-seller  will  fear  that  one  of  his  brooms  will  be  left  on  his 
hands.  To  prevent  this,  he  will  mark  down  his  prices ;  therefore, 
brooms  will  be  cheaper.  Hence,  greater  production  and  greater 
cheapness  go  hand  in  hand.  —  Laloh  and  Mason  :  A  Primer  of  Polit- 
ical Economy. 

In  the  following  paragraph  the  topic-sentence,  if  stated  first,  would 
be  resented  by  the  reader,  as  it  runs  counter  to  our  feelings  and  prej- 
udices. It  is  therefore  placed  last,  is  delayed  until  our  prejudices 
are  set  at  rest  by  hearing  full  justice  done  to  Washington.  We  are 
more  easily  persuaded  by  reason  of  the  delay. 

We  are  accustomed  to  call  Washington  the  "  Father  of  his 
country."     It  would  be  useless,  if  one  desired  to  do  so,  to  dispute 


68  Composition-Rhetoric. 

his  right  to  the  title.  He  and  no  other  will  bear  it  through  the 
ages.  He  established  our  country's  freedom  with  the  sword,  then 
guided  its  course  during  the  first  critical  years  of  its  independent 
existence.  No  one  can  know  the  figure  without  feeling  how  real 
is  its  greatness.  It  is  impossible  to  see  how,  without  Washington, 
the  nation  could  have  ever  been.  His  name  is  and  should  be 
greatest.  But  after  all  is  "  Father  of  America  "  the  best  title  for 
Washington?  Where  and  what  was  Washington  during  those 
long  preliminary  years  while  the  nation  was  taking  form  .  .  .  ? 
A  quiet  planter,  who  in  youth  as  a  surveyor  had  come  to  know  the 
woods;  who  in  his  young  manhood  had  led  bodies  of  provincials 
with  some  efficiency  in  certain  unsuccessful  military  expeditions ; 
who  in  maturity  had  sat,  for  the  most  part  in  silence,  among  his 
talking  colleagues  in  the  House  of  Burgesses,  with  scarcely  a  sug- 
gestion to  make  in  all  the  sharp  debate,  while  the  new  nation  was 
shaping.  There  is  another  character  in  our  history  to  whom  was 
once  given  the  title,  "  Father  of  America,"  —  a  man  to  a  large 
extent  forgotten,  his  reputation  overlaid  by  that  of  those  who 
followed  him,  —  no  other  than  this  man  of  the  town-meeting, 
Samuel  Adams.  As  far  as  the  genesis  of  America  is  concerned, 
Samuel  Adams  can  more  properly  he  called  the  '^Father  of  America" 
than  Washington.  —  Hosmer  :  Samuel  Adams. 

In  many  paragraphs  the  topic  is  not  only  stated  at  the 
beginning  of  the  paragraph,  but  is  re-stated,  in  a  different 
form,  at  the  close.  This  is  as  if  one  telling  a  story  should 
begin,  "  I  am  going  to  relate  a  story  of  a  soldier  who  saved 
an  army,''  and  should  close,  "  Such  was  the  act  of  this  brave 
soldier."     To  illustrate :  — 

The  English  have  a  motive  for  pride  which  is  unknown  to  their 
French  neighbors.  They  are  the  leading  nation  in  a  family  of  nations.'^ 
They  feel  superior  to  the  Americans  of  the  United  States  by 
antiquity  and  by  priority  of  civilization,  and  they  believe  them- 
selves to  be  their  superiors  in  culture  and  in  manners.  Besides 
these  differences,  which  may  be  more  or  less  imaginary,  it  is  obvi- 

1  Two  sentences  are  used  to  announce  the  topic.  They  might  be  com- 
bined in  one  by  substituting  a  colon  for  the  full-stop. 


What  to  Say.  69 

ous  that  aristocratic  Englishmen  must  look  down  upon  American 
democracy,  since  they  look  down,  impartially,  upon  all  democracies. 
The  English  living  in  England  have  a  superiority  of  position  over 
their  own  colonies,  and  are  surprised  to  learn  from  Mr.  Fronde 
that  a  high  degree  of  civilization  is  to  be  found  at  the  Antipodes. 
There  are  two  opposite  ways  of  thinking  about  the  colonies  that 
give  equal  aliment  to  the  pride  of  an  Englishman.  He  may  have 
something  like  Mrs.  Jameson's  first  impression  of  Canadian  society, 
as  "  a  small  community  of  fourth-rate  half-educated  or  uneducated 
people,  where  local  politics  of  the  meanest  kind  engross  the  men, 
and  petty  gossip  and  household  cares  the  women,''  and  in  that  case 
the  superiority  of  England  must  be  incontestable ;  or  he  may  adopt 
the  views  of  Mr.  Froude,  and  then  reflect  what  a  great  thing  it  is 
for  England  to  be  the  first  among  the  highly-civilized  English- 
speaking  communities.  He  is,  besides,  under  no  necessity  to  cross 
the  ocean  for  subjects  of  comparison.  He  feels  himself  easily 
superior  to  the  Scotch  and  Irish,  and  until  recent  agitations  he 
had  almost  forgotten  the  very  existence  of  the  Welsh.  All  Scotch 
people  know  that  the  English,  though  they  visit  Scotland  to  admire 
the  lochs  and  enjoy  Highland  sports,  are  as  ignorant  about  what 
is  essentially  national  in  that  country  as  if  it  were  a  foreign  land. 
Ireland  is  at  least  equally  foreign  to  them,  or  was  so  before  the 
burning  question  of  Home  Kule  directed  attention  to  Irish  affairs. 
This  ignorance  is  not  attributable  to  dulness.  It  has  but  one  cause, 
the  pride  of  national  pre-eminence^  the  pride  of  being  the  first  amongst 
the  English-speaking  nations  of  the  world.  —  Hamerton  :  French  and 
English,  80. 

The  topic-sentence  is  sometimes  missing.  When  this  is 
the  case,  we  are  expected  to  supply  it  from  the  paragraph 
for  ourselves  as  we  read.  In  the  following  selections  topic- 
sentences  have  been  inserted  enclosed  in  brackets.  Note 
that  the  substance  of  these  sentences  could  easily  be  sup- 
plied from  the  paragraph  itself  at  a  single  reading. 

[None  of  the  excesses  of  the  French  Revolution  was  experienced 
in  the  American  Revolution.]  The  great  wheel  of  political  revo- 
lution began  to  move  in  America.  Here  its  rotation  was  guarded, 
regular  and  safe.     Transferi-ed  to  the  other  continent,  from  un- 


60  Composition-Rhetoric. 

fortunate  but  natural  causes,  it  received  an  irregular  and  violent 
impulse;  it  whirled  along  with  a  fearfal  celerity;  till  at  length, 
like  the  chariot  wheels  in  the  races  of  antiquity,  it  took  fire  from 
the  rapidity  of  its  own  motion,  and  blazed  onward,  spreading 
conflagration  and  terror  around.  —  Webster:  First  Bunker  Hill 
Oration. 

[Dirt  improves  oil  paintings.]  I  once  knew  an  artist  whose 
pictures  at  first  were  very  raw,  but  they  were  neglected  and  allowed 
to  get  dirty  for  several  years,  and  then,  in  order  to  revive  them, 
some  person  gave  them  a  coat  of  varnish.  Later  on  they  had  to 
be  cleaned,  but  the  dirt,  in  this  process,  got  so  ingrained  in  the 
handling  —  that  is  to  say,  in  the  texture  of  the  brush  marks  — 
that  a  beautiful  mellowness  was  developed ;  and  they  were  after- 
ward, not  unreasonably,  admired,  and  compared  to  the  works  of 
Velasquez. — John  Brett:  Fortnightly  Review,  April,  1895. 

[The  interest  of  young  people  in  Christian  work  is  great  and 
widespread.]  N'early  a  thousand  of  the  choicest  and  most  intellect- 
ual young  men  in  the  whole  land  go  annually  to  ]N"orthfield  and 
spend  two  weeks  in  Bible  study  under  Mr.  Moody,  and  thousands 
of  others  attend  the  various  summer  schools  for  Bible  instruction. 
The  Y.M.C.A.,  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew,  and  similar 
organizations,  the  Christian  Endeavor  societies.  Young  People's 
Unions,  and  Epworth  Leagues  number  in  their  ranks  other  thou- 
sands of  young  men  who  are  loyal  to  Christ.  Large  numbers  are 
every  year  being  added  to  this  goodly  company.  —  Cumberland 
Presbyterian, 

You  are  about,  sir,  to  send  your  son  to  a  public  school :  Eton 
or  Westminster ;  Winchester  or  Harrow ;  Rugby  or  the  Charter 
House,  no  matter  which.  He  may  come  from  either  an  accom- 
plished scholar  to  the  utmost  extent  that  school  education  can 
make  him  so ;  he  may  be  the  better  both  for  its  discipline  and  its 
want  of  discipline ;  it  may  serve  him  excellently  well  as  a  prepara- 
tory school  for  the  world  into  which  he  is  about  to  enter.  But 
also  he  may  come  away  an  empty  coxcomb  or  a  hardened  brute  — 
a  spendthrift — a  profligate — a  blackguard  or  a  sot.  [Whether 
school-life  away  from  home  will  prove  to  be  morally  good  or  bad 
for  a  boy,  cannot  be  foretold.]  —  Southey  :  The  Doctor^  chap.  IX. 


^V. 


jf^      What  to  Say.  61 

A  good  way  to  begin  a  paragraph  is  to  announce  the  theme  on 
which  you  are  going  to  write.  The  sentence  making  the  announce- 
ment is  called  a  topic-sentence. 

EXERCISE  19. 

Find  the  topic-sentence  of  each  of  the  following  paragraphs :  — 

Lin  the  sands  of  Africa  and  Arabia  the  camel  is  a  sacred  and 
precious  gif tTj  That  strong  and  patient  beast  of  burden  can  per- 
form, withduteating  or  drinking,  a  journey  of  several  days ;  and 
a  reservoir  of  fresh  water  is  preserved  in  a  large  bag,  a  fifth  stom- 
ach of  the  animal,  whose  body  is  imprinted  with  the  marks  of 
servitude ;  the  larger  breed  is  capable  of  transporting  a  weight  of 
a  thousand  pounds;  and  the  dromedary,  of  a  lighter  and  more 
active  frame,  outstrips  the  fleetest  courser  in  the  race.  Alive  or 
dead,  almost  every  part  of  the  camel  is  serviceable  to  man ;  her 
milk  is  plentiful  and  nutritious :  the  young  and  tender  flesh  has 
the  taste  of  veal ;  and  the  long  hair,  which  falls  each  year  and  is 
renewed,  is  coarsely  manufactured  into  the  garments,  the  furniture, 
and  the  tents  of  the  Bedoweens.  —  Gibbon. 

r  i 

1^  While  other  illustrious  men  have  been  reputed  great  for  their 
excellence  in  some  one  department  of  human  genius,  it  was  de- 
clared by  the  concurrent  voice  of  antiquity,  thai  Csesar  was  excel- 
lent in  all .3  He  had  genius,  understanding,  memory,  taste, 
reflection,  industry,  and  exactness.  "  He  was  great,"  repeats  a 
modern  writer,  "  in  everything  he  undertook ;  as  a  captain,  a 
statesman,  a  lawgiver,  a  jurist,  an  orator,  a  poet,  an  historian,  a 
grammarian,  a  mathematician,  and  an  architect."  The  secret  of 
his  manifold  excellence  was  discovered  by  Pliny  in  the  unpar- 
alleled energy  of  his  intellectual  powers,  which  he  could  devote 
without  distraction  to  several  objects  at  once,  or  rush  at  any 
moment  from  one  occupation  to  another  with  the  abruptness  and 
rapidity  of  lightning.  Caesar  could  be  writing  and  reading,  dic- 
tating and  listening,  all  at  the  same  time ;  he  was  wont  to  occupy 
four  amanuenses  at  once;  and  had  been  known,  on  occasion,  to 
employ  as  many  as  seven  together.  And,  as  if  to  complete  the 
picture  of  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  human  ability,  we  are 


62  Composition-Rhetoric. 

assured  that  in  all  the  exercises  of  the  camp  his  vigor  and  skill 
were  not  less  conspicuous.  He  fought  at  the  most  perilous  mo- 
ments in  the  ranks  of  the  soldiers ;  he  could  manage  his  charger 
without  the  use  of  reins;  and  he  saved  his  life  at  Alexandria  by 
his  address  in  the  art  of  swimming.  —  Merivale  :  History  of  the 
Romans  under  the  Empire.  ^ 

L  When  men  strike,  the  side  which  can  afford  to  be  idle  the  longest 
will  winjj  The  masters  are  usually  rich  enough  to  live  on  their 
accumulated  property  for  some  time.  The  men  often  have  no 
savings,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  have  large  ones.  They  may  belong  to 
a  trade-union  which  will  supply  them  with  means  of  subsistence 
for  some  time,  but  the  small  funds  of  such  a  society,  divided 
among  a  number  of  men,  cannot  go  far.  The  masters  must  have 
the  men  work  in  order  to  have  their  capital  yield  them  anything, 
but  the  men  must  work  in  order  to  live.  It  is  plain  that  the  mas- 
ters can,  as  a  rule,  stay  idle  the  longest.  —  Lalor  and  Mason: 
A  Primer  of  Political  Economy. 

r  .  + 

LThe  last  six  years  of  Lamb's  life,  though  the  most  remarkable 
in  his  literary  annals,  had  not  been  fruitful  in  incident^J  The  death 
of  his  elder  brother  .  .  .  was  the  one  event  that  nearly  touched  his 
heart  and  spirits.  Its  effect  had  been,  with  the  loss  of  some  other 
friends  about  the  same  time,  to  produce,  he  said,  "  a  certain  dead- 
ness  to  everything."  It  had  brought  home  to  him  his  loneliness, 
and  moreover  served  to  increase  a  long-felt  weariness  of  the  mo- 
notony of  office  life.  Already,  in  the  beginning  of  1822,  he  was 
telling  Wordsworth,  "  I  grow  ominously  tired  of  official  confine- 
ment. Thirty  years  have  I  served  the  Philistines,  and  my  neck 
is  not  subdued  to  the  yoke.  You  don't  know  how  wearisome  it  is 
to  breathe  the  air  of  four  pent  walls,  without  relief,  day  after  day, 
all  the  golden  hours  of  the  day  between  ten  and  four,  without  ease 
or  interposition."  —  Aingejht  :  Charles  Lamb. 

b 

Are  the  men  of  to-day  better  than  their  fathers  were?    The 

question  is  not  a  conundrum,  nor  does  it  refer  to  the  virtues  and 
graces  which  adorn  life  in  general,  but  is,  in  fact,  merely  an  in- 
quiry whether  our  young  men  can  run  faster,  jump  farther,  and 
row  better  than  those  of  former  generations.  Possibly,  after  all, 
it  doesn't  matter  very  much  whether  we  can  or  not,  yet  it  would 


What  to  Say.  63 

be  some  satisfaction  to  know.  If  the  young  men  of  the  day  do 
not  excel  in  these  things,  it  will  not  be  for  want  of  opportunity, 
nor  will  the  failure  arise  from  the  absence  of  inducements  to 
practise  them.  The  very  latest  of  these  promises  to  be  the  most 
ambitious.  (_Next  year  is  to  see  the  revival  in  a  Nineteenth- 
Century  dress  of  the  Olympic  games  of  classic  antiquity,  and  it  is 
intended  thus  to  inaugurate  the  international  athletic  carnival  to 
be  celebrated  every  fourth  year,  beginning  with  1896/3  There  is 
already  an  international  committee,  an  international  program,  and 
doubtless  there  will  shortly  be  an  international  subscription  list 
sent  round  to  provide  for  the  worthy  celebration  of  the  event. 
Athens,  indeed,  and  not  the  classic  Elis,  is  to  furnish  the  first 
place  of  meeting,  Paris  the  next,  with  London,  Berlin,  and  pos- 
sibly New  York  to  supply  the  stadium,  and  swell  the  entrance 
and  grand-stand  receipts.  Could  the  shades  of  Pindar  and  other 
Grecian  worthies  be  consulted  it  is  more  than  probable  that  they 
might  object  to  some  of  the  arrangements  :  but,  after  all,  a  revival 
is  always  a  revival  with  a  difference.  The  Greece  of  twenty-three 
centuries  ago  is  dead  —  more  dead,  if  possible,  than  Julius  Caesar 
—  and  the  attempt  to  resurrect  it  entire,  even  if  successful,  would 
probably  not  be  worth  the  trouble.  —  Harper's  TTeeAr/y,  March,  1895. 

To  the  student  of  political  history,  and  to  the  English  student 
above  all  others,  the  conversion  of  the  Roman  Republic  into  a 
military  empire  commands  a  peculiar  interest.  L  Notwithstanding 
many  differences,  the  English  and  the  Romans  essentially  resemble 
one  another^  The  early  Romans  possessed  the  faculty  of  self- 
government  beyond  any  people  of  whom  we  have  historical  knowl- 
edge, with  the  one  exception  of  ourselves.  In  virtue  of  their 
temporal  freedom,  they  became  the  most  powerful  nation  in  the 
known  world ;  and  their  liberties  perished  only  when  Rome  became 
the  mistress  of  the  conquered  races  to  whom  she  was  unable  or 
unwilling  to  extend  her  privileges.  If  England  was  similarly 
supreme,  if  all  rival  powers  were  eclipsed  by  her  or  laid  under 
her  feet,  the  Imperial  tendencies,  which  are  as  strongly  marked 
in  us  as  our  love  of  liberty,  might  lead  us  over  the  same  course 
to  the  same  end.  —  Froude  :  Ccesar ;  A  Sketch. 

7 

"  I  wish  the  good  old  tino^es  would  come  again,"  she  said,  *'  when 
we  were  not  quite  so  rich. ;   I  do  not  mean  that  I  want  to  be  poor, 


64  CompositiorirRTietoric. 

but  there  was  a  middle  state,"  so  she  was  pleased  to  ramble  on, 
"  in  which  I  am  sure  we  were  a  great  deal  happierT)  A  purchase 
is  but  a  purchase,  now  that  you  have  money  enough  and  to  spare. 
Formerly  it  used  to  be  a  triumph.  When  we  coveted  a  cheap 
luxury  (and  O  !  how  much  ado  I  had  to  get  you  to  consent  in  those 
days  !)  we  were  used  to  have  a  debate  two  or  three  days  before, 
and  to  weigh  the /or  and  against,  and  think  what  we  might  spare 
it  out  of,  and  what  saving  we  could  hit  upon  that  should  be  an 
equivalent.  A  thing  was  worth  buying  then,  when  we  felt  the 
money  that  we  paid  for  it."  —  Lamb  :  Essay  on  Old  China. 

For  further  practice  the  paragraphs  in  Lesson  4,  and  in  Exercises  4,  7, 
and  18,  may  be  used. 


EXERCISE  20. 

These  paragraphs  as  originally  written  had  topic-sentences.  Sup- 
ply the  omission  at  the  place  indicated  by  dots. 

Division  of  Labor.  • 

1.  It  would  be  a  waste  of  labor  and  time  for  the  farmer,  after 
having  harvested  his  wheat,  to  carry  it  to  the  mill,  grind  it  him- 
self into  flour,  take  the  flour  to  the  city,  then  bake  it  into  bread, 
and  then  carry  the  loaf  around  in  search  of  a  buyer  for  it.  The 
farmer  knows  how  to  farm  and  has  the  needed  tools.  He  does 
not  know  how  to  run  a  mill,  or  a  railroad,  or  a  bakery,  and  he  hag 
none  of  the  necessary  machinery  ^  '  -^'^  -i  '^^J-S:  V^  (_  L,  Jf  'Y[q  -  •'-' 
can  earn  ^5  by  w^orking  five  days,  one  as  a  miller,  one  as  a  carrier, 
one  as  a  baker,  and  one  as  a  peddler,  his  labor  during  the  same  five 
days  on  the  farm  would  probably  be  worth  two  or  three  times  that 
sum. 

2.  Moreover,  if  he  confines  himself  to  farming,  he  has  to  buy 
only  one  set  of  tools  and  can  keep  them  almost  constantly  in  use, 
so  that  his  capital  does  not  lie  idle.  If  he  pursued  five  trades, 
he  would  have  to  have  five  different  sets  of  toi)ls,  and  four  setSi 
would  have  to  lie  idle  all  the  while.     Therefore  VdL-QJ^^/^^^^''^"^^ 

Thanjisgiving  Day. 

3.  --------.     It  is  not  a  day  of  ecclesiastical 

saints.    It  is  not  a  national  anniversary.    It  is  not  a  day  celebrating 


What  to  Say,  65 

a  religious  event.  It  is  a  day  of  nature.  It  is  a  day  of  thanksgiving 
for  the  year's  history.  And  it  must  pivot  on  the  household.  It 
is  the  one  great  festival  of  our  American  life  that  pivots  on  the 
household.  Like  a  true  Jev^rish  festival  it  spreads  a  bounteous 
table ;  for  the  Jews  knew  how  near  to  the  stomach  lay  all  the 
moral  virtues.        -  -^       . 

4.  (k^ix>JT^}JSi\J^  JJ^J^X^^  not  a  riotous  feast.  It  is  a' 
table  piled  high,  among  the  group  of  rollicking  young  and  the  sober 
joy  of  the  old,  with  the  treasures  of  the  growing  year,  accepted 
with  rejoicings  and  interchange  of  many  festivities  as  a  token  of 
gratitude  to  Almighty  God. 

The  True  Gentleman.       XhJJ^ 

5.  Il:^  it:^AJUAr<'fS  Is  it  to  have  lofty  aims;  to  lead 
a  pure  life ;  to  keep  your  honor  virgin ;  to  have  the  esteem  of 
your  fellow-citizens  and  the  love  of  your  fireside;  to  bear  good 
fortune  meekly;  to  suifer  evil  with  constancy;  and  through  evil 
or  good  to  maintain  truth  always?  Show  me  the  happy  man 
whose  life  exhibits  these  qualities,  and  him  we  will  salute  as 
gentleman,  whatever  his  rank  may  be. 

Whang,  the  Miller. 

6.  Whang,  the  miller,  was  naturally  avaricious ;  nobody  loved 
money  better  than  he,  *"/X^' -C^* -^'  -.v^L>  L  _  -^  When  people 
would  talk  of  a  rich  man  in  company.  Whang  w^ould  say,  "  I  know 
him  very  well ;  he  and  I  are  intimate ;  he  stood  for  a  child  of 
mine."  But  if  ever  a  poor  man  was  mentioned,  he  had  not  the 
least  knowledge  of  the  man ;  he  might  be  very  well  for  aught  he 
knew;  but  he  was  not  fond  of  many  acquaintances,  and  loved  to 
choose,  his  company. 

7.  -  •-  --  -^  -  -  -  -;  he  had  nothing  but  the  profits 
of  his  mill  to  support  liim ;  but  though  these  were  small,  they 
were  certain ;  while  his  mill  stood  and  went,  he  was  sure  of  eating ; 
and  his  frugality  was  such  that  he  every  day  laid  some  money  by, 
which  he  would  at  intervals  count  and  contemplate  with  much 
satisfaction.  Yet  still  his  acquisitions  were  not  equal  to  his 
desires ;  he  only  found  himself  above  want,  whereas  he  desired  to 
be  possessed  of  affluence. 


66  Composition-Rhetoric,  ^ 

As  Others  saw  Him.  \  (^  ^^L  (A^ 

8.  \k>Wa>  3aX^JIMI:?^  -For  nearly  nineteen  centuries 
all  Christendom  has  lamented  the  bigotry,  blindness,  and  cruelty 
of  those  who  caused  or  consented  to  his  death.  Would  it  not  be 
exceedingly  interesting  to  know  just  how  he  seemed  to  a  learned, 
thoughtful,  patriotic,  devout  Jew  of  his  day?  A  writer,  whose 
name  is  withheld,  has  attempted  to  reproduce  for  us  the  attitude 
and  views  of  such  a  man,  in  a  small  book  with  the  above  title.  It 
purports  to  be  written'  by  a  Scribe  at  Alexandria,  about  twenty- 
five  years  after  the  Crucifixion.  He  was  in  Jerusalem  during  the 
public  life  of  Jesus,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrim  which 
delivered  him  to  death.  He  endeavors  to  represent  how  the  Jews, 
of  different  classes,  were  impressed  when  Jesus  drove  the  money- 
changers from  the  Temple,  taught  in  the  synagogue  at  Jerusalem, 
tested  the  rich  young  man,  forgave  the  woman  taken  in  adultery, 
baffled  his  questioners,  made  his  triumphal  entry  into  the  city, 
alienated  the  people  by  his  refusal  to  lead  a  revolt  against  the 
Roman  power,  was  examined  by  the  Sanhedrim,  condemned  by 
Pilate,  and  crucified.  The  book  is  profoundly  reverent,  is  written 
with  great  clearness  and  literary  charm,  and  cannot  fail  to  interest 
many  thoughtful  readers. 


Restriction  of  Immigration. 

9.  If   a   servant  girl  applies  for  employment  in  a  family  we 
demand,  first  of  all,  a  recommendation  from  her  former  mistress. 
If  a  clerk  is  searching  for  work  he  carries  with  him,  as  the  sine 
qua  non  of  success,  certain  letters  which  vouch  for  his  honesty  and 
ability.     If  a  skilled  workman  becomes  discontented  and  throws 
up  his  job  he  has  a  right  to  ask  of  his  employer  an  indorsement, 
and  armed  with  that  he  feels  secure.    --------. 

Why  should  we  allow  the  whole  riffraff  of  creation  to  come  here, 
either  to  become  a  burden  on  our  charitable  institutions,  or  to 
lower  the  wages  of  our  own  laborers  by  a  cutthroat  competition  ? 
We  have  already  had  too  much  of  that  sort  of  thing.  If  a  foreigner 
has  notified  the  nearest  United  States  consul  of  his  intention  to 
emigrate,  and  the  consul,  after  due  examination,  has  pronounced 
him  a  proper  person,  let  him  come,  by  all  means.     We  have  room 


What  to  Say.  67 

enough  for  such  persons.  But  for  immigrants  who  have  neither 
capital  nor  skill,  who  never  earned  a  living  in  their  own  country 
and  will  never  earn  one  here,  we  have  no  room  wliatever.  Popular 
opinion  throughout  the  country  is  running  in  this  direction  and 
Congress  will  do  well  to  take  heed.  , 

Candle-light  and  Sociability.^  ^vji  ^/^^^^ 

10.  -    L-VA^lty?  Ipa  a^^-^^^  it,  what  savage,  unso- 

cial nights  must  our  ancestors  have  spent,  wintering  in  caves  and 
unillumined  fastnesses.  They  must  have  lain  about  and  grumbled 
at  one  another  in  the  dark.  What  repartees  could  have  passed, 
when  you  must  have  felt  about  for  a  smile,  and  handled  a  neigh- 
bor's cheek  to  be  sure  that  he  understood  it?  This  accounts  for 
the  seriousness  of  the  elder  poetry.    Jokes  came  in  with  candles. 


«'Y\\;«"V^>^^^  \  EXERCISE  21. 

These  paragraphs  are  as  they  were  originally  written.  They  have 
no  topic-sentence,  and,  strictly  speaking,  do  not  need  one.  After 
reading  them  carefully,  frame  for  each  a  topic-sentence  that  will 
unite  well  with  the  paragraph  and  that  might  be  printed  as  part  of 
the  paragraph. 

Pyrrhus  had  a  counsellor  named  Cineas,  who  asked  him  how  he 
would  use  his  victory  if  he  should  be  so  fortunate  ^  to  overcome 
the  Komans,  who  were  reputed  great  w^arriors  and  conquerors  of 
many  peoples.  The  Romans  overcome,  replied  the  king,  no  city, 
Greek  nor  barbarian,  would  dare  to  oppose  me,  and  I  should  be 
master  of  all  Italy.  AVell,  Italy  conquered,  what  next?  Sicily 
next  would  hold  out  its  arms  to  receive  me,  Pyrrhus  replied.  And, 
what  next?  These  would  be  but  forerunners  of  greater  victories. 
There  are  Libya  and  Carthage,  said  the  king.  Then  ?  Then,  con- 
tinued Pyrrhus,  I  should  be  able  to  master  all  Greece.  And  then  ? 
continued  Cineas.  Then  I  would  live  at  ease,  eat  and  drink  all 
day,  and  enjoy  pleasant  conversation.  And  what  hinders  you 
from  taking  now  the  ease  that  you  are  planning  to  take  after  such 
hazards  and  so  much  blood-shedding?  Here  the  conversation 
closed,  for  Pyrrhus  could  not  answer  this  question.  —  Gilman: 
The  Story  of  Rome. 


68  Composition-Rhetoric, 

The  Caesars  have  perished,  and  their  palaces  are  in  ruins.  The 
empire  of  Charlemagne  has  risen,  like  one  of  those  gorgeous  clouds 
we  often  admire,  brilliant  with  the  radiance  of  the  setting  sun ; 
and,  like  that  cloud,  it  has  vanished  forever.  Charles  V.  has 
marshalled  the  armies  of  Europe  around  his  throne,  and  has  almost 
rivalled  the  Csesars  in  the  majesty  of  his  sway;  and,  like  a  dream, 
the  vision  of  his  universal  empire  has  fled.  —  J.  S.  C.  Abbott: 
History  of  Christianity,  14. 

Is  there  a  penny-post,  do  you  think,  in  the  world  to  come  ?  Do 
people  there  write  for  autographs  to  those  who  have  gained  a  little 
notoriety  ?  Do  women  there  send  letters  asking  for  money  ?  Do 
boys  persecute  literary  men  with  requests  for  a  course  of  reading  ? 
,  Are  there  offices  in  that  sphere  which  are  coveted,  and  to  obtain 
which  men  are  pestered  to  write  letters  of  recommendation  ?  — 
Letter  of  William  Cullen  Bryant. 

Do  you  remember  the  brown  suit  which  you  made  to  hang  upon 
you,  till  all  your  friends  cried  shame  upon  you,  it  grew  so  thread- 
bare, and  all  because  of  that  folio  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  which 
you  dragged  home  late  at  night  from  Barker's  in  Covent  Garden? 
Do  you  remember  how  we  eyed  it  for  weeks  before  we  could  make 
up  our  minds  to  the  purchase,  and  had  not  come  to  a  determina- 
tion till  it  was  near  ten  o'clock  of  the  Saturday  night,  when  you 
set  off  from  Islington  fearing  you  should  be  too  late  —  and  when 
the  old  bookseller,  with  some  grumbling,  opened  his  shop,  and  by 
the  twinkling  taper  (for  he  was  setting  bedwards),  lighted  out  the 
relic  from  his  dusty  treasures,  and  when  you  lugged  it  home,  wish- 
ing it  were  twice-  as  cumbersome,  and  when  you  presented  it  to 
me,  and  when  we  were  exploring  the  perfectness  of  it  (collafinfj, 
you  called  it),  and  while  I  was  repairing  some  of  the  loose  leaves 
with  paste,  which  your  impatience  would  not  suffer  to  be  left  till 
daybreak  —  was  there  no  pleasure  in  being  a  poor  man  ?  or  can 
those  neat  black  clothes  which  you  wear  now,  and  are  so  careful 
to  keep  brushed,  since  we  have  become  rich  and  finical,  give  you 
half  the  honest  vanity  with  which  you  flaunted  it  about  in  that 
over-worn  suit — your  old  corbeau  —  for  four  or  five  weeks  longer 
than  you  should  have  done,  to  pacify  your  conscience  for  the 
mighty  sum  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  shillings,  was  it?  —  a  great  aifair 
you  thought  it  then  —  which  you  had  lavished  on  the  old  folio? 


What  to  Say,  69 

Now  you  can  afford  to  buy  any  book  that  pleases  you,  but  I  do 
not  see  that  you  ever  bring  me  home  any  nice  old  purchases 
now.  —  Lamb  :  Essay  on  Old  China, 

The  first  paragraph  in  Lesson  3  and  the  paragraphs  in  Exercise  2  will 
furnish  further  practice  if  needed.  , 

EXERCISE  22. 

On  one  of  the  following  themes  write  a  single,  complete  paragraph 
of  about  120  words.  The  topic-sentence  and  some  of  the  points  about 
which  you  might  speak  are  suggested  by  questions  in  connection  with 
each  theme. 

Useful  Books. 


Topic^ntence :  Are  all  books  useful  ?  Is  there  need  of  dis- 
crimination ?  Books  to  avoid,  and  books  to  choose.  What  is  the 
chief  use  of  biography?  books  of  travel?  history?  speeches?  sto- 
ries ?  poems  ?  Before  reading  a  book,  one  should  ask  the  advice  of 
those  who  know  what  is  best  to  read. 

Bryant's  To  a  Water-fowl. 

Topic-sentence :  Bryant  a  poet  of  Nature  ;  in  this  poem  he  re- 
flects on  a  water-fowl  flying  high  in  the  heavens.  What  time  of 
day  is  it?  What  question  does  the  poet  ask  of  the  bird?  Is  it 
lost  and  uncared  for?  Where  is  the  water-fowl  probably  going ? 
What  joys  await  it?    What  lesson  does  the  poet  learn? 

Setting  the  Table. 

Topic-sentence:  Is  this  an  easy  or  unimportant  task?  What 
most  is  required?  What  is  done  first?  In  what  order  are  the 
things  put  on?  In  what  condition  should  they  be?  How  ar- 
ranged? Finishing  touches.  Does  the  appearance  of  the  table 
affect  the  enjoyment  of  the  meal? 

Longfellow's  Pegasus  in  Pound, 

Topic-sentence :  On  what  legend  has  Longfellow  based  this 
poem?    Give  the  story  as  Longfellow  gives  it.     Does  the  treat- 


70  Composition-Rhetoric, 

ment  given  Pegasus  suggest  the  treatment  wliich  the  world  has 
accorded  to  its  highest  poets  ?  Name  an  example  or  two.  Has 
ill-treatment  repressed  genius?  How  was  it  with  Pegasus?  What 
returns  did  he  make? 

Washing  the  Children. 

Topic-sentence :  Care  of  a  mother-cat  for  her  kittens.  What 
does  she  do  first  when  setting  about  washing  them?  Does  she 
have  any  particular  time  or  place  for  it  ?  How  does  she  do  it  ? 
Does  she  finish  one  before  beginning  another  ?  What  if  one  runs 
away  while  the  others  are  being  washed?  What  if  a  mischievous 
kitten  tries  to  interfere  with  the  work?  Does  the  mother-cat 
seem  to  work  intelligently  ? 

Watching  Street  Musicians. 

Topic-sentence :  Pleasure  and  interest  in  watching  street  mu- 
sicians. When  do  they  begin  to  appear?  Usually  of  what  nation- 
ality? Describe  a  small  group  of  them.  How  do  the  members 
of  the  group  differ  from  one  another,  in  age,  responsibility,  inter- 
est ?  Apparent  returns  for  their  eiforts.  What  has  probably  been 
their  past  history  ?    What  stories  have  you  heard  about  them  ? 

The  Dandelion. 

Topic-sentence :  A  common  yet  beautiful  flower.  When  does 
it  appear?  Speed  of  maturing.  Appearance  when  matured. 
Pleasure  to  children.  Use  as  food.  Is  it  rightfully  regarded  as  a 
nuisance  in  lawns  ? 

An  Old  Bridge. 

Topic-sentence :  Always  picturesque ;  a  favorite  subject  with 
painters.  The  particular  bridge  in  mind  is  where  located  ? 
About  how  old  ?  Covered  ?  Color  ?  How  does  it  appear  to  one 
looking  through  ?  A  refuge  in  storms  ?  Cracks  in  the  floor  ? 
Any  windows  ?    Is  it  used  now  ?     Compare  with  a  modern  bridge. 

Arbor  Day. 

Topic-sentence  :  A  new  holiday.  Its  purposes,  practical,  senti- 
mental, educational.     When  and  where  first  established  in  this 


What  to  Say, 

country?  Usual  exercises.  What  trees  were  planted  by  the 
school  last  Arbor  Day?  How  have  they  thrived?  Interest  in 
them.     Their  future  usefulness. 

The  Use  of  Slang. 

Topic-sentence  :  Very  common,  very  convenient  sometimes,  but 
harmful  to  the  user's  language  resources.  The  habitual  user  of  a 
slang  phrase  employs  it  in  many  meanings.  Illustrate  by  taking 
one  slang  phrase  and  enumerating  all  its  different  meanings  and 
applications.  Instead  of  using  these  numerous  expressions  and 
thus  adding  to  his  vocabulary,  the  user  of  this  slang  phrase  has 
but  one  expression  for  all  of  them.  His  language  growth  stops. 
Slang  is  fatal  to  acquiring  a  large  stock  of  words. 

EXERCISE  23. 

On  one  of  the  following  themes  write  a  single,  complete  para- 
graph of  about  120  words.  Begin  with  a  topic-sentence  in  which 
you  announce  your  theme.  After  writing,  shorten  the  theme  into 
a  title,  more  attractive,  if  possible,  than  the  one  here  given. 

1.  The  value  of  learning  to  swim. 

2.  Lawn-tennis  as  a  sport  of  skill.  '""' 

3.  One  cause  of  tbe  Mexican  War. 

4.  The  trials  of  a  newsboy. 

5.  The  wedding  in  Longfellow's  Miles  Standish. 

6.  The  relation  of  forests  to  rainfall. 

7.  A  field  of  corn  compared  to  an  army  with  banners. 

8.  The  Happy  Valley  in  Johnson's  Easselas. 

9.  Courtesy  in  the  school-room. 

10.  The  best  tree  to  plant  for  shade. 

11.  Impressions  from  a  visit  to  a  lawyer's  office. 

12.  The  most  admirable  trait  of  General  Grant's  char- 
acter. 

13.  The  principal  reason  why  strikes  are  inexpedient. 

14.  The  story  of  Byron's  Prisoner  of  Chillon. 

15.  The  most  interesting  of  the  monthly  magazines. 


72  Composition- Rhetoric. 

16.  One  use  of  studying  science  explained. 

17.  Where  do  all  the  pins  go  ? 

18.  The  literary  society  as  a  school  of  parliamentary  law. 

19.  The  obstinacy  of  a  fountain  pen. 

20.  The  extent  of  Bayard  Taylor's  travels. 


LESSOR  12. 


How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Repetition, 

The  theme  has  been  likened  to  a  seed  from  which,  by  a 
natural  process  of  growth,  the  paragraph  develops.  We 
shall  now  consider  the  various  ways  in  which  this  develop- 
ment may  take  place.  For  convenience  we  shall  confine 
our  study  for  the  present  to  the  type  of  paragraph  in  which 
the  theme  is  announced  in  a  topic-sentence. 

1.  A  tree  is  an  underground  creature,  with  its  tail  in  the  air. 
2.  All  its  intelligence  is  in  its  roots.  3.  All  the  senses  it  has  are 
in  its  roots.  4.  Think  what  sagacity  it  shows  in  its  search  after 
food  and  drink!  5.  Somehow  or  other,  the  rootlets,  which  are 
its  tentacles,  find  out  that  there  is  a  brook  at  a  moderate  distance 
from  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  and  they  make  for  it  with  all  their 
might.  6.  They  find  every  crack  in  the  rocks  where  there  are  a 
few  grains  of  the  nourishing  substance  they  care  for,  and  insinuate 
themselves  into  its  deepest  recesses.  7.  When  spring  and  summer 
come,  they  let  their  tails  grow,  and  delight  in  whisking  them 
about  in  the  wind,  or  letting  them  be  whisked  about  by  it ;  for 
these  tails  are  poor  passive  things,  with  very  little  will  of  their 
own,  and  bend  in  whatever  direction  the  wind  chooses  to  make 
them.  8.  The  leaves  make  a  deal  of  noise  whispering.  9.  I  have 
sometimes  thought  I  could  understand  them,  as  they  talk  with 
each  other,  and  that  they  seemed  to  think  they  made  the  wind 
as  they  wagged  forward  and  back.  10.  llemember  what  I  say. 
11.  The  next  time  you  see  a  tree  waving  in  the  wind,  recollect 
that  it  is  the  tail  of  a  great  underground,  many-armed,  polypus-like 


What  to  Say.  73 

creature,  which  is  as  proud  of  its  caudal  appendage,  especially  in 
summer-time,  as  a  peacock  of  his  gorgeous  expanse  of  plumage. — 
Holmes  :  Over  the  Teacups,  212. 

In  the  foregoing  paragraph  the  theme  is  announced  in 
the  first  two  sentences :  "  A  tree  is  an  underground  creat- 
ure with  its  tail  in  the  air  and  all  its  intelligence  in  its 
roots."  Notice  how  this  idea  is  developed.  In  sentence  3, 
the  writer  says  over  again,  in  slightly  different  words,  what 
he  has  said  in  sentence  2 :  "  All  the  senses  it  has  (that  is, 
all  its  intelligence)  are  in  its  roots.''  In  like  manner  in 
sentence  4  he  says  over  again  what  he  has  said  in  sentences 
2  and  3 :  "  Think  what  sagacity  (that  is,  what  intelligence, 
what  sense)  it  shows  in  its  search  after  food  and  drink" 
(that  is,  in  its  roots).  Just  so  sentences  7-9  are  a  kind  of 
repetition  of  the  idea,  "  An  underground  creature  with  its 
tail  in  the  air,"  and  sentence  11  repeats  in  expanded  form 
the  ideas  of  sentences  1  and  2. 

1.  "Disorders  of  intellect,"  answered  Imlac,  "happen  much  more 
often  than  superficial  observers  will  easily  believe.  2.  Perhaps,  if 
we  speak  with  rigorous  exactness,  no  human  mind  is  in  its  right 
state.  3.  There  is  no  man  whose  imagination  does  not  sometimes 
predominate  over  his  reason,  who  can  regulate  his  attention  wholly 
by  his  will,  and  whose  ideas  will  come  and  go  at  his  command. 
4.  Xo  man  will  be  found  in  whose  mind  airy  notions  do  not 
sometimes  tyrannize,  and  force  him  to  hope  or  fear  beyond  the 
limits  of  sober  probability.  5.  All  power  of  fancy  over  reason  is 
a  degree  of  insanity ;  but  while  this  power  is  such  as  we  can  con- 
trol and  repress,  it  is  not  visible  to  others,  nor  considered  as  any 
depravation  of  the  mental  faculties  :  it  is  not  pronounced  madness, 
but  when  it  becomes  ungovernable  and  apparently  influences 
speech  or  action."  —  Johnson  :  Rasselas,  chap.  XLIV. 

In  the  preceding  paragraph  the  theme-idea  of  sentence 
1  is  repeated  in  sentence  2  in  the  bolder  and  more  emphatic 
words,  "  no  human  mind,"  etc.     Sentence  3  retains  this  em- 


74  Composition-Rhetoric, 

pliatic  repetition  in  the  words,  "  no  man,"  and  repeats  the 
idea  of  "disorders  of  intellect"  in  the  three  phases  of 
mental  disorder  mentioned  in  the  three  clauses  of  the  sen- 
tence. Sentence  4  again  repeats  "  no  man/'  and  repeats  the 
idea  of  "  disorders  of  intellect "  in  the  words  "  airy  notions," 
etc.,  "beyond  the  limits,"  etc.  In  sentence  5  the  first 
assertion  is  again  a  repetition  of  sentence  1 ;  and  the  re- 
mainder of  the  paragraph  is  occupied  with  a  necessary 
explanation. 

1.  The  bicycle  is,  in  fact,  the  agent  of  health  and  of  a  wider 
civilization.  2.  It  will  give  stronger  bodies  to  the  rising  genera- 
tion than  their  fathers  have  had,  and  it  will  bring  the  city  and  the 
country  into  closer  relations  than  have  existed  since  the  days  of 
the  stage-coach.  3.  What  the  summer  boarder  has  been  doing 
for  the  abandoned  farms  and  deserted  villages  of  New  England, 
the  wheelman  is  doing  for  the  regions  surrounding  our  great  cities. 
4.  He  is  distributing  through  them  modern  ideas  and  modern  ways 
of  living,  and  is  fructifying  them  with  gentle  distillations  of  city 
wealth.  5.  Above  all,  he  is  teaching  their  people  that  a  sure  way 
to  prosperity  lies  before  them  in  the  beautifying  of  the  country  in 
which  they  live,  and  in  the  preservation  of  all  its  attractive  natural 
features.  —  Century  Magazine,  50  :  475. 

In  the  foregoing  paragraph,  the  idea  that  the  bicycle  is 
the  agent  of  health  is  repeated  in  the  first  half  of  the  sec- 
ond sentence.  The  idea  that  the  bicycle  is  the  agent  of  a 
wider  civilization  is  repeated  in  the  second  half  of  the  sec- 
ond sentence  and  in  each  succeeding  sentence.  Show  by 
what  groups  of  words. 

These  illustrations  will  serve  to  show  that  one  method  of 
building  up  a  paragraph  is  to  repeat  some  of  the  ideas  of  the  topic- 
sentence,  at  each  repetition  giving  some  new  turn  to  the  thought. 

EXERCISE  24. 


In  the  following  paragraphs  find  the  sentences  or  parts 
of  sentences  which  repeat  in  whole  or  in  part  the  thought 


What  to  Say,  75 

of  the  topic-sentence.  In  each  case  determine  whether  the 
repetition  is  or  is  not  of  a  kind  to  make  the  thought  grow. 
If  it  is,  point  out  the  new  element  of  thought  which  the 
repetition  adds  to  the  thought  of  the  topic-sentence.  Does 
the  thought  thus  repeated  grow  broader,  or  more  definite,  or 
more  emphatic  ? 

Not  all  of  the  sentences  of  these  paragraphs  are  sentences 
of  repetition ;  it  is  seldom  that  a  topic-sentence  is  developed 
by  repetitions  alone.  The  uses  of  the  other  sentences  will 
appear  in  subsequent  lessons. 

[Topic]  1 .  Nihilism,  so  far  as  one  can  find  out,  expresses  rather 
a  method,  or  a  means,  than  an  end.  2.  It  is  difficult  to  say  just 
what  Nihilism  does  imply.  3.  So  much  appears  reasonably  cer- 
tain^^hat  the  primary  object  of  the  Nihilists  is  destruction ;  that 
the  abolition  of  the  existing  order,  not  the  construction  of  a  new 
order,  is  in  their  view;  that,  whatever  their  ulterior  designs,  or 
whether  or  no  they  have  any  ultimate  purpose  in  which  they  are 
all  or  generally  agreed,  the  one  object  which  now  draws  and  holds 
them  together,  in  spite  of  all  the  terrors  of  arbitrary  power,  is  the 
abolition,  not  only  of  all  existing  governments,  but  of  all  political 
estates,  all  institutions,  all  privileges,  all  forms  of  authority^  land 
that  to  this  is  postponed  whatever  plans,  purposes,  or  wishes  the 
confederation,  or  its  members  individually,  may  cherish  concerning 
the  reorganization  of  society.  —  Francis  A.  Walker  :  Socialism. 

[Topic]  1.  From  a  child  I  was  fond  of  reading,  and  all  the 
little  money  that  came  into  my  hands  was  ever  laid  out  in  books. 
2.  Pleased  with  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  my  first  collection  was  of 
John  Bunyan's  works,  in  separate  little  volumes.  3.  I  afterwards 
sold  them  to  enable  me  to  buy  R.  Burton's  Historical  Collections; 
they  were  small  chapmen's  books,  and  cheap,  forty  or  fifty  in  all. 
4.  My  father's  little  library  consisted  chiefly  of  books  in  polemic 
divinity,  most  of  which  I  read,  and  have  since  often  regretted  that, 
at  a  time  when  I  had  such  a  thirst  for  knowledge,  more  proper 
books  had  not  fallen  in  my  way,  since  it  was  now  resolved  I  should 
not  be  a  clergyman.  5.  Plutarch's  Lives  there  was,  in  which  I  read 
abundantly,  and  I  still  think  that  time  spent  to  great  advantage. 
6.  There  was  also  a  book  of  De  Foe's,  called  An  Essay  on  Projects, 


76  Compositioii'Rhetoric. 

and  another  of  Dr.  Mather's,  called  Essays  to  do  Good,  which  peN 
haps  gave  me  a  turn  of  thinking  that  had  an  influence  on  some 
of  the  principal  future  events  of  my  life.  —  Franklin:  Autobiog- 
raphy. 

1.  All  the  triumphs  of  truth  and  genius  over  prejudice  and 
power,  in  every  country  and  in  every  age,  have  been  the  triumphs 
of  Athens.  2.  Wherever  a  few  great  minds  have  made  a  stand 
against  violence  and  fraud  in  the  cause  of  liberty  and  reason,  there 
has  been  her  spirit  in  the  midst  of  them :  inspiring,  encouraging, 
consoling;  —  by  the  lonely  lamp  of  Erasmus;  by  the  restless  bed 
of  Pascal ;  in  the  tribune  of  Mirabeau ;  in  the  cell  of  Galileo ;  on 
the  scaffold  of  Sidney.  [Topic]  3.  But  who  shall  estimate  her 
influence  on  private  happiness?  4.  Who  shall  say  how  many  thou- 
sands have  been  made  wiser,  happier,  and  better,  by  those  pursuits 
in  which  she  has  taught  mankind  to  engage;  to  how  many  the 
studies  that  took  their  rise  from  her  have  been  wealth  in  poverty, 

—  liberty  in  bondage,  —  health  in  sickness,  —  society  in  solitude? 
5.  Her  power  is  indeed  manifested  at  the  bar,  in  the  senate,  in 
the  field  of  battle,  in  the  schools  of  philosophy.  6.  But  these  are 
not  her  glory.  7.  Wherever  literature  consoles  sorrow,  or  assuages 
pain  —  wherever  it  brings  gladness  to  eyes  w^hich  fail  with  wake- 
fulness and  tears,  and  ache  for  the  dark  house  and  the  long  sleep, 

—  there  is  exhibited  in  its  noblest  f ®rm  the  immortal  influence  of 
Athens.  —  Macaulay:  Athenian  Orators. 

[Topic]  1.  The  honorable  member  complained  that  I  had  slept 
n  his  speech.  2.  I  must  have  slept  on  it,  or  not  slept  at  all. 
3>  I'he  moment  the  honorable  member  sat  down,  his  friend  from 
Missouri  rose,  and,  with  much  honeyed  commendation  of  the 
speech,  suggested  that  the  impressions  which  it  had  produced  were 
too  charming  and  delightful  to  be  disturbed  by  other  sentiments, 
or  other  sounds,  and  proposed  that  the  Senate  should  adjourn. 
4.  Would  it  have  been  quite  amiable  in  me.  Sir,  to  interrupt  this 
excellent  good  feeling?  5.  Must  I  not  have  been  absolutely 
malicious,  if  I  could  have  thrust  myself  forward  to  destroy  sensa- 
tions thus  pleasing?  6.  Was  it  not  much  better  and  kinder,  both 
to  sleep  upon  them  myself,  and  to  allow  others  also  the  pleasure 
of  sleeping  upoiTthem  ?  7.  But  if  it  be  meant,  by  sleeping  upon 
his  speech,  that  I  took  time  tx)  prepare  a  reply  to  it^i^  is  quite  a 


What  to  Say,  77 

mistake.  8.  Owing  to  other  engagements,  I  could  not  employ- 
even  the  interval  between  the  adjournment  of  the  Senate  and  its 
meeting  the  next  morning  in  attention  to  the  subject  of  this 
debate.  9.  Nevertheless,  Sir,  the  mere  matter  of  fact  is  undoubt- 
edly true.  10.  I  did  sleep  on  the  gentleman's  speech,  and  slept 
soundly.  11.  And  I  slept  equally  well  on  his  speech  of  yesterday, 
to  which  I  am  now  replying.  12.  It  is  quite  possible  that  in  this 
respect,  also,  I  possess  some  advantage  over  the  honorable  member, 
attributable,  doubtless,  to  a  cooler  temperament  on  my  part ;  for, 
in  truth,  I  slept  upon  his  speeches  remarkably  well.  —  Webster: 
Reply  to  Hayne. 

[Topic]  1.  But  the  gentleman  inquires  why  he  was  made  the 
Ibject  of  such  a  reply?  2.  Why  was  he  singled  out?  3.  If  an 
attack  has  been  made  on  the  East,  he,  he  assures  us,  did  not  begin 
It;  it  was  made  by  the  gentleman  from  Missouri.  4.  Sir,  I  an- 
swered the  gentleman's  speech  because  I  happened  to  hear  it; 
and  because,  also,  I  chose  to  give  an  answer  to  that  speech,  which, 
if  unanswered,  I  thought  most  likely  to  produce  injurious  impres- 
sions. 5.  I  did  not  stop  to  inquire  who  w^as  the  original  drawer 
of  the  bill.  6.  I  found  a  responsible  indorser  before  me,  and  it 
was  my  purpose  to  hold  him  liable,  and  to  bring  him  to  his  just 
responsibility  without  delay.  —  Webster  :  Reply  to  Hayne. 

[Topic]  1.  Mountains  are  to  the  rest  of  the  body  of  the  earth 
what  violent  muscular  action  is  to  the  body  of  man.  2.  The 
muscles  and  tendons  of  its  anatomy  are,  in  the  mountain,  brought 
out  with  fierce  and  convulsive  energy,  full  of  expression,  passion, 
and  strength;  the  plains  and  the  lowxr  hills  are  the  repose  and 
the  effortless  motion  of  the  frame,  when  its  muscles  lie  dormant 
and  concealed  beneath  the  lines  of  its  beauty,  yet  ruling  those 
lines  in  their  every  undulation.  3.  This,  then,  is  the  first  grand 
principle  of  the  truth  of  the  earth.  4.  The  spirit  of  the  hills  is 
action ;  that  of  the  lowlands,  repose ;  and  between  these  there 
is  to  be  found  every  variety  of  motion  and  of  rest;  from  the  inac- 
tive plain,  sleeping  like  the  firmament,  with  cities  for  stars,  to  the 
fiery  peaks,  which,  with  heaving  bosoms  and  exulting  limbs,  with 
the  clouds  drifting  like  hair  from  their  bright  foreheads,  lift  up 
their  Titan  hands  to  Heaven,  saying,  ^'I  live  forever !  "  —  Ruskin  : 
Modern  Painters^  Vol.  I,  pt.  ii,  sec.  iv,  chap.  i. 


7^_Jv^^  Composition-Rhetoric. 

[Topic]    1.  Nor  must  I  forget  the  suddenly  changing  seasons  of 
the  Northern  clime.      2.  There  is  no  long  and  lingering  spring, 
unfolding  leaf  and  blossom  one  by  one;   no  long  and  lingering.  _y 
autumn,  pompous  with  many-colored  leaves  and  the  glow ocf^  Indian 
summers.      3.  But  winter  and  summer  are  wonderful,  and  pass 
into  each  other.      4.  The  quail  has  hardly  ceased  piping  in  the 
corn,  when  winter  from  the  folds  of  trailing  clouds  sows  broadcast 
over  the  land  snow,  icicles,  and  rattling  hail.     5.  The  days  waneOAXU 
apace.     6.  Erelong  the  sun  hardly  rises  above  the  horizon,  or  does 
not  rise  at  all.     7.  The  moon  and  the  stars  shine  through  the  day; 
only,  at  noon,  they  are  pale  and  wan,  and  in  the  southern  sky  a 
red,  fiery  glow  as  of  sunset  burns  along  the  horizon  and  then  goes      i 
out.      8.  And  pleasantly  under  the  silver  moon,  and  under  the  /VvjU 
silent,  solemn  stars,  ring  the  steel  shoes  of  the  skaters  on  the  frozen 
sea,  and  voices,  and  the  sound  of  bells.  —  Longfellow^:  Note  to 
The  Children  of  the  LonTs  Supper. 

1.  The  troops  were  now  to  be  disbanded.  2.  Fifty  thousand 
men,  accustomed  to  the  profession  of  arms,  were  at  once  thrown 
on  the  world ;  and  experience  seemed  to  warrant  the  belief  that 
this  change  would  produce  much  misery  and  crime,  that  the  disr 
charged  veterans  would  be  seen  begging  in  every  street,  or  would 
be  driven  by  hunger  to  pillage.  [Topic]  3.  But  no  such  result 
followed.  4.  In  a  few  months  there  remained  not  a  trace  indicat- 
ing that  the  most  formidable  army  in  the  world  had  just  been 
absorbed  into  the  mass  of^^the  communityl  5.  The  Royalists 
themselves"confessed"that  in  every  department  of  honest  industry, 
the  discarded  warriors  prospered  beyond  other  men;  that  none 
was  charged  with  any  theft  or  robbery ;  that  none  was  heard  to 
ask  an  alms;  and  that,  if  a  baker,  a  mason,  or  a  waggoner  at- 
tracted notice  by  his  diligence  and  sobriety,  ke  was_in^  proba- 
bility one  of  Oliver's  old  soldiers.  —  Macaulay:  History  of  Eng- 
land, I,  chap.  ii. 

Further  practice,  if  needed,  may  be  given  on  the  paragraphs  quoted  in 
Exercises  7,  18,  a£id  19. 

EXERCISE  25. 

Develop  each  of  the  following  topic-sentences  into  a  brief  para- 
graph by  repetition  of  the  idea.     Remember  that  in  the  repetition 


What  to  Say.  79 

it  is  not  enough  to  put  one  word  in  place  of  another.  There  must 
be  not  only  a  change  of  words  but  a  growth  of  ideas.  With  each 
sentence  the  thought  should  become  larger,  or  more  definite,  or 
more  emphatic.  If  the  repetition  does  not  immediately  suggest 
itself,  the  use  of  such  phrases  as  "  in  other  words,"  "  to  speak  more 
plainly,"  "  to  put  the  matter  more  briefly  (precisely,  definitely, 
concretely,  specifically,  forcibly),"  will  sometimes  start  the  train 
of  thought. 

1.  It  requires  sustained  effort  to  make  a  good  writer. 

2.  In  stating  his  reasons,  he  never  jumped  at  concla- 
sions. 

3.  Fashions  in  dress  are  forever  changing. 

4.  The  play  As  You  Like  It  has  no  hero. 

5.  City  governments  in  America  need  reforming. 

6.  There  are  books  and  books. 

7.  Emerson   says,   "The  boy  is   a   Greek;   the   youth, 

romantic;  the  adult,  reflective." 

8.  Physical  training  should  be  compulsory  in  schools. 

9.  There  will  always  be  need  of  charity  in  the  world. 

10.  A  good  partisan  is  not  always  a  good  citizen. 

11.  The  "  good  old  times  "  were  not  all  that  some  people 
think. 

12.  The  world  does  not  "  owe  every  one  a  living." 


-M^y^' 


LESSON  13. 

How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Particulars  and  Details. 

When  at  the  beginning  of  a  paragraph  we  find  a  topic- 
sentence  like  this,  "Every  traveller  going  south  from  St. 
Louis  can  recall  the  average  Arkansas  village  in  winter," 
we  can  readily  guess  what  the  writer  will  say  next.  We 
know,  at  any  rate,  what  we  want  him  to  say.  We  want 
more  information  about  the  Arkansas  village.  We  want  to 
know  something  about  its  houses,  its  streets,  its  surround- 


80  Composition-Rhetoric, 

ings,  its  inhabitants.  We  want  and  we  expect  the  particu- 
lars and  details  of  the  scene  which  will  enable  us  to  see  it 
as  the  writer  saw  it,  or  as  the  traveller  is  supposed  to 
recall  it.  One  way,  then,  in  which  a  paragraph-theme 
may  grow  into  a  paragraph  is  by  the  addition  of  particulars. 
The  following  will  illustrate  this  method  of  growth :  — 

[Topic]  Every  traveller  going  south  from  St.  Louis  can  recall 
the  fbverage  Arkansas  village  in  winter.  [Particulars]  Little 
strings  of  houses  spread  raggedly  on  both  sides  of  the  rails. 
A  few  wee  shops,  that  are  likely  to  have  a  mock  rectangle  of 
fagade  stuck  against  a  triangle  of  roof,  in  the  manner  of  chil- 
dren's card  houses,  parade  a  draggled  stock  of  haberdashery  and 
groceries.  To  right  or  left  a  mill  buzzes,  its  newness  attested  by 
the  raw  tints  of  the  weather  boarding.  There  is  no  horizon ;  there 
seldom  is  a  horizon  in  Arkansas,  —  it  is  cut  off  by  the  forest. 
Pools  of  water  reflect  the  straight  black  lines  of  tree  trunks  and 
the  crooked  lines  of  bare  boughs,  while  a  muddy  road  winds 
through  the  vista.  Generally  there  are  a  few  lean  cattle  to  stare 
in  a  dejected  fashion  at  the  train,  and  some  fat  black  swine  to 
root  among  the  sodden  grasses.  Bales  of  cotton  are  piled  on  the 
railway  platform,  and  serve  as  seats  for  half  a  dozen  listless  men 
in  high  boots  and  soft  hats.  Occasionally  a  woman,  who  has 
not  had  the  time  to  brush  her  hair,  calls  shrilly  to  some  child 
who  is  trying  to  have  pneumonia  by  sitting  on  the  ground.  No 
one  seems  to  have  anything  to  do,  yet  everyone  looks  tired,  and 
the  passenger  in  the  Pullman  wonders  how  people  live  in  "  such 
a  hole."  —  Octave  Thanet. 

To  develop  the  idea  "average  Arkansas  village  in  winter,''  the 
writer  has  selected  the  particulars  that  strike  the  eye  of  the  traveller,  — 
the  houses,  the  shops,  the  mill,  the  surrounding  country,  the  men  and 
women. 

In  the  following  selection  the  writer  gives  full  details  concerning 
his  imaginary  possessions  in  Spain.  The  paragraphs  after  the  first 
are  made  up  solely  of  particulars. 

[Topic]  It  is  not  easy  for  me  to  say  how  I  know  so  much,  as 
I  certainly  do,  about  my  castles  in  Spain.     [Details]    The  sun 


What  to  Say.  81 

always  shines  upon  them.  They  stand  lofty  and  fair  in  a  lumi- 
nous, golden  atmosphere,  a  little  hazy  and  dreamy,  perhaps,  like 
the  Indian  summer,  but  in  which  no  gales  blow  and  there  are  no 
tempests.  All  the  sublime  mountains,  and  beautiful  valleys,  and 
soft  landscape,  that  I  have  not  yet  seen,  are  to  be  found  in  the 
grounds.  They  command  a  noble  view  of  the  Alps;  so  fine, 
indeed,  that  I  should  be  quite  content  with  the  prospect  of  them 
from  the  highest  tower  of  my  castle,  and  not  care  to  go  to 
Switzerland. 

The  neighboring  ruins,  too,  are  as  picturesque  as  those  of 
Italy,  and  my  desire  of  standing  in  the  Coliseum,  and  of  seeing 
the  shattered  arches  of  the  Aqueducts  stretching  along  the  Cam- 
pagna  and  melting  into  the  Alban  Mount,  is  entirely  quenched. 
The  rich  gloom  of  my  orange  groves  is  gilded  by  fruit  as  brilliant 
of  complexion  and  exquisite  of  flavor  as  any  that  ever  dark-eyed 
Sorrento  girls,  looking  over  the  high  plastered  walls  of  southern 
Italy,  hand  to  the  youthful  travellers,  climbing  on  donkeys  up  the 
narrow  lane  beneath. 

The  Nile  flows  through  my  grounds.  The  desert  lies  upon  their 
edge,  and  Damascus  stands  in  my  garden.  I  am  given  to  under- 
stand, also,  that  the  Parthenon  has  been  removed  to  my  Spanish 
possessions.  The  Golden-Horn  is  my  fish-preserve ;  my  flocks  of 
golden  sheep  are  pastured  on  the  plains  of  Marathon,  and  the 
honey  of  Hymettus  is  distilled  from  the  flowers  that  grow  in  the 
vale  of  Enna  —  all  in  my  Spanish  domains. 

From  the  windows  of  those  castles  look  beautiful  women  whom 
I  have  never  seen,  whose  portraits  the  poets  have  painted.  They 
wait  for  me  there,  and  chiefly  the  fair-haired  child,  lost  to  my  eyes 
so  long  ago,  now  bloomed  into  an  impossible  beauty.  The  lights 
that  never  shone,  glance  at  evening  in  the  vaulted  halls,  upon  ban- 
quets that  were  never  spread.  The  bands  I  have  never  collected, 
play  all  night  long,  and  enchant  the  brilliant  company,  that  was 
never  assembled,  into  silence.  —  Curtis  :  Frue  and  /,  36,  37. 

In  the  following  paragraph  from  Irving,  the  idea  to  be  developed 
is  found  in  the  third  sentence :  "It  was  one  of  those  rich  morsels  of 
quaint  antiquity  which  give  such  a  peculiar  charm  to  English  land- 
scape." Then  follow  the  details  of  the  church, — the  ancient  monu- 
ments, the  stained  windows,  the  tombs. 


82  Composition-Rhetoric, 

There  are  few  places  more  favorable  to  the  study  of  character 
than  an  English  country  church.  I  was  once  passing  a  few  weeks 
at  the  seat  of  a  friend,  who  resided  in  the  vicinity  of  one,  the 
appearance  of  which  particularly  struck  my  fancy.  [Topic]  It 
was  one  of  those  rich  morsels  of  quaint  antiquity  which  give  such 
a  peculiar  charm  to  English  landscape.  [Details]  It  stood  in 
the  midst  of  a  country  filled  with  ancient  families,  and  contained, 
within  its  cold  and  silent  aisles,  the  congregated  dust  of  many 
noble  generations.  The  interior  walls  were  incrusted  with  monu- 
ments of  every  age  and  style.  The  light  streamed  through 
windows  dimmed  with  armorial  bearings,  richly  emblazoned  in 
stained  glass.  In  various  parts  of  the  church  were  tombs  of 
knights,  and  high-born  dames,  of  gorgeous  workmanship,  with 
their  effigies  in  colored  marble.  On  every  side  the  eye  was  struck 
with  some  instance  of  aspiring  mortality ;  some  haughty  memorial, 
which  human  pride  had  erected  over  its  kindred  dust,  in  this 
temple  of  the  most  humble  of  all  religions.  —  Irving  :  Sketch 
Book. 

The  particulars  called  for  by  the  topic-sentence  may  be  side  by  side 
in  space  or  may  follow  one  another  in  time.  In  the  examples  given 
above  the  particulars  are  side  by  side  in  space :  the  houses  of  the 
Arkansas  village  are  side  by  side  with  the  shops,  the  Parthenon  is 
beside  the  Nile,  the  tombs  are  beside  monuments.  In  the  following 
selection  the  particulars  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  time  :  — 

[Topic]  I  shall  never  forget  a  proof  I  myself  got  twenty  years 
ago,  how  serious  a  thing  it  is  to  be  a  doctor,  and  how  terribly  in 
earnest  people  are  when  they  want  him.  [Details]  It  was  when 
cholera  first  came  here  in  1832.  I  was  in  England  at  Chatham, 
which  you  all  know  is  a  great  place  for  ships  and  sailors.  This 
fell  disease  comes  on  generally  in  the  night;  as  the  Bible  says, 
"  it  walks  in  darkness,"  and  many  a  morning  was  I  roused  at  two 
o'clock  to  go  and  see  its  sudden  victims,  for  then  is  its  hour  and 
power.  One  morning  a  sailor  came  to  say  I  must  go  three  miles 
down  the  river  to  a  village  where  it  had  broken  out  with  great 
fury.  Off  I  set.  We  rowed  in  silence  down  the  dark  river,  pass- 
ing the  huge  hulks,  and  hearing  the  restless  convicts  turning  in 
their  beds  in  their  chains.  The  men  rowed  with  all  their  might : 
they  had  too  many  dying  or  dead  at  home  to  have  the  heart  to 


What  to  Say,  83 

speak  to  me.  We  got  near  the  place ;  it  was  very  dark,  but  I  saw 
a  crowd  of  men  and  women  on  the  shore,  at  the  landing-place. 
They  were  all  shouting  for  the  Doctor;  the  shrill  cries  of  the 
women,  and  the  deep  voices  of  the  men  coming  across  the  water 
to  me.  We  were  near  the  shore,  when  I  saw  a  big  old  man,  his 
hat  off,  his  hair  grey,  his  head  bald;  he  said  nothing,  but  turning 
them  all  off  with  his  arm,  he  plunged  into  the  sea,  and  before  I 
knew  where  I  was,  he  had  me  in  his  arms.  I  was  helpless  as  an 
infant.  He  waded  out  with  me,  carrying  me  high  up  in  his  left 
arm,  and  with  his  right  levelling  every  man  or  woman  who  stood 
in  his  way. 

It  was  Big  Joe  carrying  me  to  see  his  grandson,  little  Joe;  and 
he  bore  me  off  to  the  poor  convulsed  boy,  and  dared  me  to  leave 
him  till  he  was  better.  He  did  get  better,  but  Big  Joe  was  dead 
that  night.  He  had  the  disease  on  him  when  he  carried  me  away 
from  the  boat,  but  his  heart  was  set  upon  his  boy.  I  never  can 
forget  that  night,  and  how  important  a  thing  it  was  to  be  able  to 
relieve  suffering,  and  how  much  Old  Joe  was  in  earnest  about 
having  the  doctor.  —  John  Brown:  Horce  Subsecivce,  I,  393. 

In  the  following,  some  of  the  particulars  are  side  by  side,  some  are 
in  the  order  of  time  :  — 

[Topic]  The  great  globe  we  had  left  was  rolling  beneath  us. 
No  eye  of  one  in  the  flesh  could  see  it  as  I  saw  or  seemed  to  see  it. 
No  ear  of  any  mortal  being  could  hear  the  sounds  that  came  from 
it  as  T  heard  or  seemed  to  hear  them.  [Particulars]  The  broad 
oceans  unrolled  themselves  before  me.  I  could  recognize  the  calm 
Pacific  and  the  stormy  Atlantic,  —  the  ships  that  dotted  them,  the 
white  lines  where  the  waves  broke  on  the  shore,  —  frills  on  the 
robes  of  the  continent,  —  so  they  looked  to  my  woman's  percep- 
tion;  the  vast  South  American  forests;  the  glittering  icebergs 
about  the  poles;  the  snowy  mountain  ranges,  here  and  there  a 
summit  sending  up  fire  and  smoke;  mighty  rivers,  dividing  prov- 
inces within  sight  of  each  other,  and  making  neighbors  of  realms 
thousands  of  miles  apart ;  cities ;  light-houses  to  insure  the  safety 
of  sea-going  vessels,  and  war-ships  to  knock  them  to  pieces  and 
sink  them.  All  this,  and  infinitely  more,  showed  itself  to  me 
during  a  single  revolution  of  the  sphere :  twenty-four  hours  it 
would  have  been,  if  reckoned  by  earthly  measurements  of  time. 


84  Composition-Rhetoric , 

I  have  not  spoken  of  the  sounds  I  heard  while  the  earth  was 
revolving  under  us.  The  howl  of  storms,  the  roar  and  clash  of 
waves,  the  crack  and  crash  of  the  falling  thunder-bolt,  —  these  of 
course  made  themselves  heard  as  they  do  to  mortal  ears.  But 
there  were  other  sounds  which  enchained  my  attention  more  than 
these  voices  of  nature.  As  the  skilled  leader  of  an  orchestra  hears 
every  single  sound  from  each  member  of  the  mob  of  stringed  and 
wind  instruments,  and  above  all  the  screech  of  the  straining 
soprano,  so  my  sharpened  perceptions  made  what  would  have 
been  for  common  mortals  a  confused  murmur  audible  to  me  as 
compounded  of  innumerable  easily  distinguished  sounds.  Above 
them  all  arose  one  continued,  unbroken,  agonizing  cry.  It  was 
the  voice  of  suffering  womanhood,  —  a  sound  that  goes  up  day 
and  night,  one  long  chorus  of  tortured  victims.  —  O.  W.  Holm^.s  : 
Over  the  Teacups. 

[Topic]  It  is  amusing  to  know  how  small  were  the  pecuniary 
rewards  of  Bryant's  literary  labors,  whatever  may  have  been  the 
fame  they  brought  him.  [Particulars]  Two  dollars  a  poem  was 
the  price  that  he  named,  and  he  seemed  to  be  abundantly  satisfied 
with  the  terms.  A  gentleman  met  him  in  New  York  many  years 
after,  and  said  to  him,  "  I  have  just  bought  the  earliest  edition  of 
your  poems,  and  gave  twenty  dollars  for  it."  "  More,  by  a  long 
shot,"  replied  the  poet,  "than  I  received  for  writing  the  whole 
work."  —  Century,  50 :  374. 

[Topic]  That  was  a  pretty  drive  through  Annandale.  [Par- 
ticulars] As  you  leave  Moffat  the  road  gradually  ascends  into 
the  region  of  the  hills ;  and  down  below  you  lies  the  great  valley, 
with  the  river  Annan  running  through  it,  and  the  town  of  Moffat 
itself  getting  smaller  in  the  distance. '  You  catch  a  glimmer  of 
the  blue  peaks  of  Westmoreland  lying  far  away  in  the  blue  south, 
half  hid  amidst  silver  haze.  The  hills  around  you  increase  in 
size,  and  yet  you  would  not  recognize  the  bulk  of  the  great  round 
slopes  but  for  those  minute  dots  that  you  can  make  out  to  be 
sheep,  and  for  an  occasional  wasp-like  creature  that  you  can  sup- 
pose to  be  a  horse. 

The  evening  draws  on.  The  yellow  light  on  the  slopes  becomes 
warmer.  You  arrive  at  a  great  circular  chasm  which  is  called  by 
the  country  folks  the   Devil's  Beef-tub  —  a  mighty  hollow,  the 


What  to  Say,  85 

western  sides  of  which  are  steeped  in  a  soft  purple  shadow,  while 
the  eastern  slopes  burn  yellow  in  the  sunlight.  Far  away,  down 
in  that  misty  purple,  you  can  see  tents  of  gray,  and  these  are 
masses  of  slate  uncovered  by  grass.  The  descent  seems  too  abrupt 
for  cattle,  and  yet  there  are  faint  specks  which  may  be  sheep. 
There  is  no  house,  not  even  a  farm  house,  near ;  and  all  traces  of 
Moffat  and  its  neighborhood  have  long  been  left  out  of  sight. 

But  what  is  the  solitude  of  this  place  to  that  of  the  wild  and 
lofty  region  yon  enter  when  you  reach  the  summit  of  the  hill? 
Far  away  on  every  side  of  you  stretch  miles  of  lonely  moorland, 
with  the  shoulders  of  the  more  distant  hills  reaching  down  in  end- 
less succession  into  the  western  sky.  There  is  no  sign  of  life  in 
this  wild  place.  The  stony  road  over  which  you  drive  was  once  a 
mail-coach  road;  now  it  is  overgrown  with  grass.  A  few  old 
stakes,  rotten  and  tumbling,  show  where  it  was  necessary  at  one 
time  to  place  a  protection  against  the  sudden  descents  on  the  side 
of  the  road ;  but  now  the  road  itself  seems  lapsing  back  into 
moorland.  It  is  up  in  this  wilderness  of  heather  and  wet  moss 
that  the  Tweed  takes  its  rise;  but  we  could  hear  no  trickling  of 
any  stream  to  break  the  profound  and  melancholy  silence.  There 
was  not  even  a  shepherd's  hut  visible ;  and  we  drove  on  in  silence, 
scarcely  daring  to  break  the  charm  of  the  utter  loneliness  of  the 
place. 

The  road  twists  round  to  the  right.  Before  us  a  long  valley  is 
seen,  and  we  guess  that  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Tweed.  Al- 
most immediately  afterward  we  come  upon  a  tiny  rivulet  some 
two  feet  in  width  —  either  the  young  Tweed  itself  or  one  of  its 
various  sources ;  and  as  w^e  drive  on  in  the  gathering  twilight, 
towards  the  valley,  it  seems  as  though  we  were  accompanied  by  in- 
numerable streamlets  trickling  down  to  the  river.  The  fire  of  sun- 
set goes  out  in  the  west,  but  over  there  in  the  clear  green-white  of 
the  east  a  range  of  hills  still  glows  with  a  strange  roseate  purple. 
We  hear  the  low  murmuring  of  the  Tweed  in  the  silence  of  the 
valley.  We  get  down  among  the  lower-lying  hills,  and  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  river  seems  to  have  drawn  to  it  thousands  of  wild 
creatures.  There  are  plover  calling  and  whirling  over  the  marshy 
levels.  There  are  black-cock  and  gray-hen  dusting  themselves  in 
the  road  before  us,  and  waiting  until  we  are  quite  near  them  be- 
fore they  wing  their  straight  flight  up  to  the  heaths  above.     Fai 


86  Composition-Rhetoric. 

over  us  in  the  clear  green  of  the  sky,  a  brace  of  wild-ducks  go 
swiftly  past.  A  weasel  glides  out  and  over  the  gray  stones  by  the 
roadside;  and  farther  along  the  bank  there  are  young  rabbits 
watching,  and  trotting,  and  watching  again,  as  the  phaeton  gets 
nearer  to  them.  And  then  as  the  deep  rose-purple  of  the  eastern 
hills  fades  away,  and  all  the  dark-green  valley  of  the  Tweed  lies 
under  the  cold  silver-gray  of  the  twilight,  we  reach  a  small  and 
solitary  inn,  and  are  almost  surprised  to  liear  once  more  the  sound 
of  a  human  voice.  — Black  :  Adventures  of  a  Phaeton. 

A  second  method  of  expanding  a  topic-sentence  into  a  paragraph 
is  to  add  sentences  containing  particulars  and  details.  The  par- 
ticulars should  be  such  as  are  naturally  called  for  by  the  topic- 
sentence.  They  may  be  particulars  which  stand  side  by  side  in 
space,  or  particulars  which  follow  one  after  another  in  order  of 
time. 


EXERCISE  26. 

The  following  topic-sentences  are  to  be  developed  by  giving 
particulars.  Determine  in  each  case  whether  the  particulars  called 
for  are  side  by  side  in  space,  or  succeed  one  another  in  time.  The 
employment  of  such  phrases  as  "  to  go  into  particulars,"  "  to  men- 
tion details,"  will  sometimes  be  found  useful  in  starting  the  train 

of  thought,    (j^^^^^^^^^ 

1.  The  village  presented  a  lively  appearance  the  morn- 
ing of  the  election. 

2.  I  shall  never  forget  my  first  day  at  school. 

3.  The  court-room  was  a  dingy  place. 

4.  The  last  game  of  ball  was  the  best  of  the  season. 

5.  I  once  saw  or  thought  I  saw  a  ghost. 

6.  Have  you  ever  watched  the  effects  of  moonlight  upon 
clouds  ? 

7.  A  new  boy  has' come  into  our  school. 

8.*^ '  WhatT  beautiful  character  Longfellow  has  created  for 
us  in  Evangeline ! 


What  to  Say.  8T 

9.   The  morning  paper  brings  the  news  of   a  terrible 
accident. 

10.  Washington's  journey  to  his  first  inauguration  was  a 
triumph. 

11.  There  is  an  old  deserted  mill  a  few  miles  up  the  river. 

12.  The  portrait  of  Daniel  Webster  shows  that  he  was  a 
man  of  great  firmness  and  determination. 


LESSON  14. 

How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Specific  Instances  or  Examples, 

Suppose  a  Avriter  to  have  begun  a  paragraph  with  a  gen- 
eral statement  like  the  following :  "  The  sounds  which  the 
ocean  makes  must  be  very  significant  and  interesting  to 
those  who  live  near  it."  He  may  now  proceed  to  develop 
this  idea  by  the  method  of  the  preceding  lesson :  he  may 
give  particulars  about  the  various  sounds,  he  may  state 
what  the  sounds  are  and  give  their  significance  in  detail. 
But  there  is  another  way  by  which  he  may  amplify  his 
theme.  Instead  of  telling  us  about  all  the  sounds,  he  may, 
if  be  chooses,  tell  about  a  single  one ;  that  is,  he  may  give 
an  example  or  specific  instance  of  a  sound.  Upon  this 
instance  he  may  dwell  throughout  the  course  of  the  para- 
graph. The  following  will  illustrate  this  mode  of  de- 
velopment :  — 

[Topic]  The  sounds  which  the  ocean  makes  must  be  very  sig- 
nificant and  interesting  to  those  who  live  near  it.  [Specific  in- 
stance] When  I  was  leaving  the  shore  at  this  place  the  next 
summer,  and  had  got  a  quarter  of  a  mile  distant,  ascending  a  hill, 
I  was  startled  by  a  sudden,  loud  sound  from  the  sea,  as  if  a  large 
steamer  were  letting  off  steam  by  the  shore,  so  that  I  caught  my 
breath  and  felt  my  blood  run  cold  for  an  instant,  and  I  turned 
about,  expecting  to  see  one  of  the  Atlantic  steamers  thus  far  out 
of  her  course ;  but  there  was  nothing  unusual  to  be  seen.     There 


88  Composition- Rhetoric, 

was  a  low  bank  at  the  entrance  of  the  Hollow,  between  me  and 
the  ocean,  and  suspecting  that  I  might  have  risen  into  another 
stratum  of  air  in  ascending  the  hill,  —  w^hich  had  wafted  to  me 
only  the  ordinary  roar  of  the  sea,  —  I  immediately  descended 
again,  to  see  if  I  lost  hearing  of  it;  but,  without  regard  to  my 
ascending  or  descending,  it  died  away  in  a  minute  or  two,  and  yet 
there  was  scarcely  any  wind  all  the  while.  The  old  man  said  that 
this  was  what  they  called  the  "rut,"  a  peculiar  roar  of  the  sea 
before  the  wind  changes,  which,  however,  he  could  not  account 
for.  He  thought  that  he  could  tell  all  about  the  weather  from  the 
sounds  which  the  sea  made.  —  Thoreau:  Cape  Cod, 

[Topic]  Dr.  Watts's  statement  that  "birds  in  their  little  nests 
agree,"  like  too  many  others  intended  to  form  the  infant  mind,  is 
very  far  from  being  true.  On  the  contrary,  the  most  peaceful 
relation  of  the  different  species  to  each  other  is  that  of  armed 
neutrality.  They  are  very  jealous  of  neighbors.  [Specific  in- 
stance] A  few  years  ago,  I  was  much  interested  in  the  house- 
building of  a  pair  of  summer  yellows-birds.  They  had  chosen  a 
very  pretty  site  near  the  top  of  a  white  lilac,  within  easy  eye- 
shot of  a  chamber  windows  A  very  pleasant  thing  it  was  to  see 
their  little  home  growing  with  mutual  help,  to  watch  their  indus- 
trious skill  interrupted  only  by  little  flirts  and  snatches  of  en- 
dearment, frugally  cut  short  by  the  common-sense  of  the  tiny 
housewife.  They  had  brought  their  work  nearly  to  an  end,  and 
had  already  begun  to  line  it  with  fern-down,  the  gathering  of 
which  demanded  more  distant  journeys  and  longer  absences.  But, 
alas!  the  syringa,  immemorial  manor  of  the  catbirds,  was  not 
more  than  twenty  feet  away,  and  these  "  giddy  neighbors  "  had, 
as  it  appeared,  been  all  along  jealously  watchful,  though  silent, 
witnesses  of  what  they  deemed  an  intrusion  of  squatters.  No 
sooner  were  the  pretty  mates  fairly  gone  for  a  new  load  of  lining, 

than 

**  To  their  unguarded  nest  these  weasel  Scots 
Came  stealing." 

Silently  they  flew  back  and  forth,  each  giving  a  vengeful  dab  at 
the  nest  in  passing.  They  did  not  fall-to  and  deliberately  destroy 
it,  for  they  might  have  been  caught  at  their  mischief.  As  it  was, 
whenever  the  yellow-birds  came  back,  their  enemies  were  hidden 


What  to  Say.  8» 

in  their  own  sight-proof  bush.  Several  times  their  unconscious 
victims  repaired  damages,  but  at  length,  after  counsel  taken  to- 
gether, they  gave  it  up.  Perhaps,  like  other  unlettered  folk,  they 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Devil  was  in  it,  and  yielded  to 
the  invisible  persecutions  of  witchcraft.  —  Lowell  :  My  Garden 
Acquaintance. 

[Topic]  There  has  been  a  capital  illustration  lately  how  help- 
less many  English  gentlemen  are  when  called  together  on  a  sudden. 
The  Government,  rightly  or  wrongly,  thought  fit  to  entrust  the 
quarter-sessions  of  each  county  with  the  duty  of  combating  its 
cattle  plague ;  but  the  scene  in  most  "  shire  halls "  was  unsatis- 
factory. There  was  the  greatest  difficulty  in  getting,  not  only  a 
right  decision,  but  any  decision.  [Specific  instance]  I  saw  one 
myself  which  went  thus.  The  chairman  proposed  a  very  complex 
resolution,  in  which  there  was  much  which  every  one  liked,  and 
much  which  every  one  disliked,  though,  of  course,  the  favorite 
parts  of  some  were  the  objectionable  parts  to  others.  This  resolu- 
tion got,  so  to  say,  wedged  in  the  meeting;  everybody  suggested 
amendments ;  one  amendment  was  carried  which  none  were  satis- 
fied with,  and  so  the  matter  stood  over.  It  is  a  saying  in  England, 
*'  a  big  meeting  never  does  anything  *' ;  and  yet  we  are  governed 
by  the  House  of  Commons,  —  by  *'a  big  meeting."  —  Bagehot  : 
The  English  Constitution,   207. 

Sometimes  the  writer  will  choose  to  give  a  number  of  instances,  as 
in  the  three  selections  following :  — 

[Topic]  All  history  is  full  of  revolutions,  produced  by  causes 
similar  to  those  which  are  now  [March  2,  1831]  operating  in  Eng- 
land. A  portion  of  the  community  which  had  been  of  no  account, 
expands  and  becomes  strong.  It  demands  a  place  in  the  system, 
suited,  not  to  its  former  weakness,  but  to  its  present  power.  If 
this  is  granted,  all  is  well.  If  this  is  refiised,  then  comes  the 
struggle  between  the  young  energy  of  one  class  and  the  ancient 
privileges  of  another.  [Instances]  Such  was  the  struggle  be- 
tween the  Plebeians  and  the  Patricians  of  Rome.  Such  was  the 
struggle  of  the  Italian  allies  for  admission  to  the  full  rights  of 
Roman  citizens.  Such  was  the  struggle  of  our  IN^orth  American 
colonies   against  the   mother   country.      Such   was  the   struggle 


90  Composition-Rhetoric, 

which  the  Third  Estate  of  France  maintained  against  the  aris- 
tocracy of  birth.  Such  was  the  struggle  which  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics of  Ireland  maintained  against  the  aristocracy  of  creed.  Such 
is  the  struggle  which  the  free  people  of  color  in  Jamaica  are  now 
maintaining  against  the  aristocracy  of  skin.  Such,  finally,  is  the 
struggle  which  the  middle  classes  in  England  are  maintaining 
against  an  aristocracy  of  mere  locality,  against  an  aristocracy,  the 
principle  of  which  is  to  invest  a  hundred  drunken  potwallopers  in 
one  place,  or  the  owner  of  a  ruined  hovel  in  another,  with  powers 
which  are  withheld  from  cities  renowned  to  the  furthest  ends  of 
the  earth  for  the  marvels  of  their  wealth  and  of  their  industry.  — 
Macaulay  :  Speech  on  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832. 

[Topic]  The  circle  of  human  nature  is  not  complete  without 
the  arc  of  feeling  and  emotion.  [Instances]  The  lilies  of  the 
field  have  a  value  for  us  beyond  their  botanical  ones,  —  a  certain 
lightening  of  the  heart  accompanies  the  declaration  that  *'  Solomon 
in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these."  The  sound  of 
the  village  bell  which  comes  mellowed  from  the  valley  to  the  trav- 
eller upon  the  hill  has  a  value  beyond  its  acoustical  one.  The 
setting  sun  when  it  mantles  with  the  bloom  of  roses  the  alpine 
snows  has  a  value  beyond  its  optical  one.  The  starry  heavens, 
as  you  know,  had  for  Immanuel  Kant  a  value  beyond  their  as- 
tronomical one.  Round  about  the  intellect  sweeps  the  horizon  of 
emotions  from  which  all  our  noblest  impulses  are  derived.  I 
think  it  very  desirable  to  keep  this  horizon  open ;  not  to  permit 
either  priest  or  philosopher  to  draw  down  his  shutters  between 
you  and  it.  And  here  the  dead  languages,  which  are  sure  to  be 
beaten  by  science  in  the  purely  intellectual  fight,  have  an  irre- 
sistible claim.  They  supplement  the  work  of  science  by  exalting 
and  refining  the  aesthetic  faculty,  and  must  on  this  account  be 
cherished  by  all  who  desire  to  see  human  culture  complete.  There 
must  be  a  reason  for  the  fascination  which  these  languages  have 
so  long  exercised  upon  the  most  powerful  and  elevated  minds,  —  a 
fascination  which  will  probably  continue  for  men  of  Greek  and 
Roman  mold  to  the  end  of  time.  —  Tyndall:  Addresses. 

[Topic]  Many  distinguished  Englishmen  have  had  some  favor- 
ite physical  amusement  that  we  associate  with  their  names.  It  is 
almost  a  part  of  an  Englishman's  nature  to  select  a  physical  pur- 


What  to  Say,  91 

suit  and  make  it  especially  his  own.  His  countrymen  like  him 
the  better  for  having  a  taste  of  this  kind.  [Instances]  Mr.  Glad- 
stone's practised  skill  in  tree-felling  is  a  help  to  his  popularity. 
The  readers  of  Wordsworth,  Scott,  and  Byron  all  remember  that 
the  first  was  a  pedestrian,  the  second  a  keen  sportsman,  and  the 
third  the  best  swimmer  of  his  time.  The  readers  of  Keats  are 
sorry  for  the  ill  health  that  spoiled  the  latter  years  of  his  short 
life,  but  they  remember  with  satisfaction  that  the  ethereal  poet 
was  once  muscular  enough  to  administer  "  a  severe  drubbing  to  a 
butcher  whom  he  caught  beating  a  little  boy,  to  the  enthusiastic 
admiration  of  a  crowd  of  bystanders."  Shelley's  name  is  associ- 
ated forever  with  his  love  of  boating,  and  its  disastrous  ending. 
In  our  own  day,  when  we  learn  something  about  the  private  life 
of  our  celebrated  contemporaries,  we  have  a  satisfaction  in  know- 
ing that  they  enjoyed  some  physical  recreation,  as,  for  example, 
that  Tyndall  is  a  mountaineer,  Millais  a  grouse-shooter,  John  Bright 
a  salmon-fisher ;  and  it  is  characteristic  of  the  inveteracy  of  Eng- 
lish physical  habits  that  Mr.  Fawcett  should  have  gone  on  riding 
and  skating  after  he  was  blind,  and  that  Anthony  Trollope  was 
still  passionately  fond  of  fox-hunting  when  he  was  old  and  heavy 
and  could  hardly  see.  The  English  have  such  a  respect  for  physi- 
cal energy  that  they  still  remember  with  pleasure  how  Palmerston 
hunted  in  his  old  age,  and  how,  almost  to  the  last,  he  would  go 
down  to  Epsom  on  horseback.  There  was  a  little  difficulty  about 
getting  him  into  the  saddle,  but,  once  there,  he  was  safe  till  the 
end  of  his  journey.  —  Hamerton  :  French  and  English^  2. 

A  third  method  of  expanding  a  topic-sentence  into  a  paragraph 
is  to  add  specific  instances  or  examples. 


LyV.*-V^-X  EXERCISE  27.  \    ,     *.„    ,      \t 

The  following  topic-sentences  are  to  be  developed  by  -speeifitf^ 
instances  or  examples.  The  expressions  ^'  to  mention  a  case  in 
point,"  "  for  instance,"  "  a  remarkable  example  of  this,"  will  often 
make  clear  just  what  is  wanted. 

1.  One  is  frequently  surprised  by  the  intelligence  which 
the  lower  animals  show. 


92  Composition- Rhetoric. 

2.  Even  very  great  and  very  good  men  usually  have 
some  failing. 

3.  It  is  often  the  minor  characters  in  Dickens's  novels 
that  are  remembered  longest. 

4.  A  bad  beginning  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  bad 
ending. 

5.  A  man  of  great  determination  will  succeed  in  spite 
of  the  most  discouraging  opposition. 

6.  Men  of  great  wealth  are  not  all  selfish. 

7.  The  demands  of  labor  organizations  are  frequently 
received  in  the  wrong  spirit. 

8.  People  are  too  apt  to  decide  that  a  person  accused  of 
crime  is  guilty  before  his  case  is  tried. 

9.  Sometimes  the  best  statesmen  do  not  know  what  law 
is  needed. 

10.  Some  queer  expressions  are  used  by  foreigners  learn- 
ing our  language. 

11.  The  abolitionist  agitators  were  frequently  placed  in 
perilous  positions. 


LESSON  15. 

JIow  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Comparisons  and  Analogies. 

Suppose  a  writer  wishes  to  develop  the  idea,  "  Effect  of 
historical  reading  upon  the  student's  mind."  If  he  uses 
the  method  of  particulars,  he  will  very  likely  single  out 
the  most  striking  ways  in  Which  the  reading  of  history 
operates  on  the  mind;  he  will  say  that  history  makes  us 
acquainted  with  men  and  institutions,  gives  us  new  ideas, 
teaches  us  morals,  laws,  and  manners.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  he  uses  the  method  of  specific  instances,  he  will 
select  individuals  upon  whom  history  exerted  a  peculiar 
influence;  he  will  perhaps  refer  to  Carlyle,  or  Tennyson, 
or  Gibbon,  or  Webster,  as  examples  of  persons  whose  mindy 


What  to  Say,  93 

were  broadened  or  narrowed  by  historical  reading.  But  if, 
for  any  reason,  these  methods  do  not  suit  his  purpose,  he 
may  develop  this  theme  by  still  another  method.  Instead 
of  saying  that  the  effect  of  historical  reading  is  so-and-so, 
he  may  say  that  it  is  like  so-and-so.  He  may  compare  the 
effect  of  reading  history  to  the  effect  of  viewing  a  collection 
of  paintings,  or  listening  to  a  play,  or  looking  at  the  stars 
with  a  telescope,  or  watching  a  Fourth-of-July  procession, 
to  each  one  of  which  it  bears  some  resemblance.  Upon 
this  resemblance  of  his  theme  to  something  else  that  is 
familiar  to  his  reader,  he  may  dwell  throughout  the  course 
of  the  paragraph.  Thus  Macaulay,  in  his  essay  on  history, 
in  order  to  develop  the  above-mentioned  theme,  compares 
the  effect  of  historical  reading  to  the  effect  of  travel  in 
foreign  countries :  — 

The  effect  of  historical  reading  is  analogous,  in  many  respects, 
to  that  produced  by  foreign  travel.  The  student,  like  the  tourist, 
is  transported  into  a  new  state  of  society.  He  sees  new  fashions. 
He  hears  new  modes  of  expression.  His  mind  is  enlarged  by 
contemplating  the  wide  diversities  of  laws,  of  morals,  and  of  man- 
ners. But  men  may  travel  far,  and  return  with  minds  as  con- 
tracted as  if  they  had  never  stirred  from  their  own  market-town. 
In  the  same  manner,  men  may  know  the  dates  of  many  battles 
and  the  genealogies  of  many  royal  houses,  and  yet  be  no  wiser. 
Most  people  look  at  past  times  as  princes  look  at  foreign  countries. 
More  than  one  illustrious  stranger  has  landed  on  our  island  amidst 
the  shouts  of  a  mob,  has  dined  with  the  King,  has  hunted  with 
the  master  of  the  stag-hounds,  has  seen  the  Guards  reviewed,  and 
a  Knight  of  the  Garter  installed,  has  cantered  along  Regent  Street, 
has  visited  St.  Paul's,  and  noted  down  its  dimensions ;  and  has 
then  departed,  thinking  that  he  has  seen  England.  He  has,  in 
fact,  seen  a  few  public  buildings,  public  men,  and  public  cere- 
monies. But  of  the  vast  and  complex  system  of  society,  of  the 
fine  shades  of  national  character,  of  the  practical  operation  of  gov- 
ernment and  laws,  he  knows  nothing.  He  who  would  understand 
these  things  rightly  nmst  not  confine  his  observations  to  palaces 


94  ^^Si£2^iii2P'^Ii^Zi£' 

and  solemn  days.  He  must  see  ordinary  men  as  they  appear  in 
their  ordinary  business  and  in  their  ordinary  pleasures.  He  must 
mingle  in  the  crowds  of  the  exchange  and  the  coffee-house.  He 
must  obtain  admittance  to  the  convivial  table  and  the  domestic 
hearth.  He  must  bear  with  vulgar  expressions.  He  must  not 
shrink  from  exploring  even  the  retreats  of  misery.  He  who 
wishes  to  understand  the  condition  of  mankind  in  former  ages 
must  proceed  on  the  same  principle.  If  he  attends  only  to  public 
transactions,  to  wars,  congresses,  and  debates,  his  studies  will  be 
as  unprofitable  as  the  travels  of  those  imperial,  royal,  and  serene 
sovereigns  who  form  their  judgment  of  our  island  from  having 
gone  in  state  to  a  few  fine  sights  and  from  having  held  formal 
conferences  with  a  few  great  officers. 

Professor  Langley  wishing  to  develop  the  idea,  "  The  signs  of  age 
are  on  the  moon,"  compares  the  surface  of  the  moon  to  a  cinder  and 
to  a  shrivelled  face  or  hand :  — 

The  signs  of  age  are  on  the  moon.  It  seems  pitted,  torn,  and 
rent  by.  the  past  action  of  long-dead  fires,  till  its  surface  is  like 
a  piece  of  porous  cinder  under  the  magnifying  glass,  —  a  burnt- 
out  cinder  of  a  planet,  which  rolls  through  the  void  like  a  ruin  of 
what  has  been  ;  and,  more  significant  still,  this  surface  is  wrinkled 
everywhere,  till  the  analogy  with  an  old  and  shrivelled  face  or 
hand  or  fruit,  where  the  puckered  skin  is  folded  about  a  shrunken 
centre,  forces  itself  on  our  attention,  and  suggests  a  common 
cause,  —  a  something  underlying  the  analogy,  and  making  it  more 
than  a  mere  resemblance.  —  Langley:  The  New  Astronomy, 

Mr.  Lowell  wishing  to  picture  Cardinal  Newman  in  old  age  com- 
pares the  cardinal  to  a  ruined  abbey  and  his  features  to  a  mini- 
ature :  — 

The  most  interesting  part  of  my  visit  to  Birmingham  was  a  call 
I  made  by  appointment  on  Cardinal  Newman.  He  was  benignly 
courteous,  and  we  excellencied  and  eminenced  each  other  by  turns. 
A  more  gracious  senescence  I  never  saw.  There  was  no  "  monu- 
mental pomp,"  but  a  serene  decay,  like  that  of  some  ruined  abbey 
in  a  woodland  dell,  consolingly  forlorn.  I  was  surprised  to  find  his 
head  and  features  smaller  than  I  expected  —  modelled  on  lines  of 


What  to  Sat/,  95 

great  vigor,  but  reduced  and  softened  by  a  certain  weakness,  as 
if  a  powerfully  masculine  face  had  been  painted  in  miniature  by 
Malbone. 

Other  examples  of  development  by  comparison  and  analogy  may 
be  detected  by  the  pupil  in  the  following ;  — 

Of  ghosts  I  have  seldom  dreamed,  so  far  as  I  can  remember ; 
in  fact  I  have  never  dreamed  of  the  kind  of  ghosts  that  we  ^re 
all  more  or  less  afraid  of,  though  I  have  dreamed  rather  often  of 
the  spirits  of  departed  friends.  But  I  once  dreamed  of  dying,  and 
the  reader,  who  has  never  died  yet,  may  be  interested  to  know 
what  it  is  like.  According  to  this  experience  of  mine,  which  I  do 
not  claim  is  typical,  it  is  like  a  fire  kindling  in  an  air-tight  stove 
with  paper  and  shavings ;  the  gathering  smoke  and  gases  sud- 
denly burst  into  flame,  and  puff  the  door  out,  and  all  is  over. — 
W.  D.  HowELLS  :  Harper's  Magazine,  90  :  810. 

The  vast  results  obtained  by  science  are  won  by  no  mystical 
faculties,  by  no  mental  processes,  other  than  those  which  are 
practised  by  every  one  of  us  in  the  humblest  and  meanest  affairs 
of  life.  A  detective  policeman  discovers  a  burglar  from  the  marks 
made  by  his  shoe,  by  a  mental  process  identical  with  that  by  which 
CuvierrevStored  the  extinct  animals  of  Montmartre  from  fragments 
of  their  bones.  Nor  does  that  process  of  induction  and  deduction 
by  which  a  lady,  finding  a  stain  of  a  particular  kind  upon  her 
dress,  concludes  that  somebody  has  upset  the  inkstand  thereon, 
differ  in  any  way  from  that  by  which  Adams  and  Leverrier  dis- 
covered a  new  planet.  The  man  of  science,  in  fact,  simply  uses 
with  scrupulous  exactness  the  methods  which  we  all  habitually  and 
at  every  moment  use  carelessly.  —  Huxley  :  Lay  Sermons,  78. 

Men  who  have  to  do  with  men,  rather  than  with  things,  fre- 
quently take  a  profound  and  seemingly  cruel  delight  in  playing 
upon  the  feelings  and  petty  vanities  of  their  fellow-creatures.  The 
habit  is  as  strong  with  them  as  the  constant  practice  of  conjuring 
becomes  with  a  juggler ;  even  when  he  is  not  performing,  he  will 
for  hours  pass  coins,  perform  little  tricks  of  sleight-of-hand  with 
cards,  or  toss  balls  in  the  air  in  marvellously  rapid  succession, 
unable  to  lay  aside  his  profession  even  for  a  day,  because  it  has 


96  Composition- Rhetoric, 

grown  to  be  the  only  natural  expression  of  his  faculties.  With 
men  whose  business  it  is  to  understand  other  men,  it  is  the  same. 
They  cannot  be  in  a  man's  company  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
without  attempting  to  discover  the  peculiar  weaknesses  of  his 
character  —  his  vanities,  his  tastes,  his  vices,  his  curiosity,  his  love 
of  money  or  of  reputation  ;  so  that  the  operation  of  such  men's 
minds  may  be  compared  to  the  process  of  auscultation  —  for  their 
ears  are  always  upon  their  neighbors'  hearts  —  and  their  conversa- 
tion, to  the  percutations  of  a  physician  to  ascertain  the  seat  of 
disease  in  a  pair  of  consumptive  lungs.  —  F.  M.  Crawford: 
Saracinesca,  125. 

The  Life  of  Johnson  is  assuredly  a  great,  a  very  great  work. 
Homer  is  not  more  decidedly  the  first  of  heroic  poets,  Shakespeare 
is  not  more  decidedly  the  first  of  dramatists,  Demosthenes  is  not 
more  decidedly  the  first  of  orators,  than  Boswell  is  the  first  of 
biographers.  He  has  no  second.  He  has  distanced  all  his  com- 
petitors so  decidedly  that  it  is  not  worth  while  to  place  them. 
Eclipse  is  first,  the  rest  nowhere.  —  Macaulay:  BosweWs  Life  of 
Johnson, 

A  constitutional  statesman  is  in  general  a  man  of  common 
opinions  and  uncommon  abilities.  The  reason  is  obvious.  When 
we  speak  of  a  free  government,  we  mean  a  government  in  which 
the  sovereign  power  is  divided,  in  which  a  single  decision  is  not 
absolute,  where  argument  has  an  office.  The  essence  of  the 
^*  gouvernement  des  avocats,"  as  the  Emperor  Nicholas  called  it,  is 
that  you  must  persuade  so  many  persons.  The  appeal  is  not  to 
the  solitary  decision  of  a  single  statesman;  not  to  Richelieu  or 
Nesselrode  alone  in  his  closet;  but  to  the  jangled  mass  of  men 
with  a  thousand  pursuits,  a  thousand  interests,  a  thousand  various 
habits.  Public  opinion,  as  it  is  said,  rules;  and  public  opinion 
is  the  opinion  of  the  average  man.  Fox  used  to  say  of  Burke : 
"Burke  is  a  wise  man;  but  he  is  wise  too  soon."  The  average 
man  will  not  bear  this.  He  is  a  cool,  common  person,  with  a  con- 
siderate air,  with  figures  in  his  mind,  with  his  own  business  to 
attend  to,  with  a  set  of  ordinary  opinions  arising  from  and  suited 
to  ordinary  life.  He  can't  bear  novelty  or  originalities.  He  says  : 
"  Sir,  I  never  heard  such  a  thing  before  in  my  life  " ;  and  he  thinks 
this  a  reductio  ad  absurdum.     You  may  see  his  taste  by  the  reading 


What  to  Say.  97 

of  which  he  approves.  Is  there  a  more  splendid  monument  of  talent 
and  industry  than  the  T'imes  f  No  wonder  that  the  average  man  — 
that  any  one  —  believes  in  it.  As  Carlyle  observes  :  "  Let  the  high- 
est intellect  able  to  write  epics  try  to  write  such  a  leader  for  the 
morning  newspapers,  it  cannot  do  it;  the  highest  intellect  will 
fail."  But  did  you  ever  see  anything  there  you  had  never  seen 
before  ?  Out  of  the  million  articles  that  everybody  has  read,  can 
any  one  person  trace  a  single  marked  idea  to  a  single  article? 
Where  are  the  deep  theories,  and  the  wise  axioms,  and  the  ever- 
lasting sentiments  which  the  writers  of  the  most  influential  publi- 
cation in  the  world  have  been  the  first  to  communicate  to  an  igno- 
rant species?  Such  writers  are  far  too  shrewd.  The  two  million, 
or  whatever  number  of  copies  it  may  be,  they  publish,  are  not 
purchased  because  the  buyers  wish  to  know  new  truth.  The  pur- 
chaser desires  an  article  which  he  can  appreciate  at  sight ;  which 
he  can  lay  down  and  say :  "  An  excellent  article,  very  excellent ; 
exactly  my  own  sentiments."  Original  theories  give  trouble;  be- 
sides, a  grave  man  on  the  Coal  Exchange  does  not  desire  to  be  an 
apostle  of  novelties  among  the  contemporaneous  dealers  in  fuel ;  — 
he  wants  to  be  provided  with  remarks  he  can  make  on  the  topics 
of  the  day  which  will  not  be  known  not  to  be  his ;  which  are  not 
too  profound ;  which  he  can  fancy  the  paper  only  reminded  him 
of.  And  just  in  the  same  way,  precisely  as  the  most  popular 
political  paper  is  not  that  which  is  abstractedly  the  best  or  most 
instructive,  but  that  which  most  exactly  takes  up  the  minds  of 
men  where  it  finds  them,  catches  the  floating  sentiment  of  society, 
puts  it  in  such  a  form  as  society  can  fancy  would  convince  another 
society  which  did  not  believe,  —  so  the  most  influential  of  consti- 
tutional statesmen  is  the  one  who  most  felicitously  expresses  the 
creed  of  the  moment,  who  administers  it,  who  embodies  it  in  laws 
and  institutions,  who  gives  it  the  highest  life  it  is  capable  of,  who 
induces  the  average  man  to  think :  "  I  could  not  have  done  it  any 
better,  if  I  had  had  time  myself."  —  Bagehot  :  The  English  Con- 
stitutiony  421. 

When  the  example  in  our  Latin  Grammar  tells  us  that  Mors 
communis  est  omnibus,  it  states  a  truism  of  considerable  interest, 
indeed,  to  the  person  in  whose  particular  case  it  is  to  be  illus- 
trated, but  neither  new  nor  startling.     No  one  would  think  of 


98  Composition- Rhetoric. 

citing  it,  whether  to  produce  conviction  or  to  heighten  discourse. 
Yet  mankind  are  agreed  in  finding  something  more  poignant  in 
the  same  reflection  when  Horace  tells  us  that  the  palace  as  well 
as  the  hovel  shudders  at  the  indiscriminating  foot  of  Death.  Here 
is  something  more  than  the  dry  statement  of  a  truism.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  two  is  that  between  a  lower  and  a  higher ;  it 
is,  in  short,  the  difference  between  prose  and  poetry.  The  oyster 
has  begun,  at  least,  to  secrete  its  pearl,  something  identical  with 
its  shell  in  substance,  but  in  sentiment  and  association  how  un- 
like !  Malherbe  takes  the  same  image  and  makes  it  a  little  more 
picturesque,  though,  at  the  same  time,  I  fear,  a  little  more  Parisian, 
too,  when  he  says  that  the  sentinel  pacing  before  the  gate  of  the 
Louvre  cannot  forbid  Death  an  entrance  to  the  King.  And  how 
long  had  not  that  comparison  between  the  rose's  life  and  that  of 
the  maiden  dying  untimely  been  a  commonplace  when  the  same 
Malherbe  made  it  irreclaimably  his  own  by  mere  felicity  of  phrase. 
We  do  not  ask  where  people  got  their  hints,  but  what  they  made 
out  of  them.  The  commonplace  is  unhappily  within  reach  of  us 
all,  and  unhappily,  too,  they  are  rare  who  can  give  it  novelty  and 
even  invest  it  with  a  kind  of  grandeur  as  Gray  knew  how  to  do.  — 
Lowell  :  Essay  on  Gray, 

A  fourth  method  of  expanding  a  topic-sentence  into  a  paragraph 
is  to  point  out  a  resemblance  or  analogy  between  the  subject  of 
thought  and  some  well-known  object  or  objects. 


EXERCISE  28. 

The  following  topic-sentences  are  to  be  developed  by  comparison 
or  analogy.  The  expressions,  "  it  seems  as  if,"  "  it  is  like,"  will 
sometimes  help  one  find  a  suitable  comparison  or  analogy. 

1.  Along  the  sides  of  the  road  are  two  long  rows  of  tall 
poplars. 

2.  The  orator  held  his  vast  audience  spellbound. 

3.  There  are  some  books  towards  which  we  feel  a  per- 
sonal friendship. 


What  to  Say,  99 

4.  Flocks  of  blackbirds  were  holding  their  noisy  ses- 
sions in  the  bare  trees. 

5.  Calnmnious  reports  are  sometimes  circulated  about 
those  whose  lives  are  pure. 

6.  Our  powers  gradually  weaken  with  age. 

7.  Sheridan's  troopers  dashed  through  the  Shenandoah 
valley  leaving  the  country  bare  of  subsistence. 

8.  The  officers  of  government  are  simply  some  of  us 
acting  in  certain  capacities  for  all  of  us. 

9.  Hamilton  had  the  ability  to  foresee  the  remote  results 
of  his  financial  policy. 

10.  Every  good  deed  will  bring  its  reward. 

11.  A  bad  habit  is  a  constant  tyrant. 

12.  Eeading  affords  many  pleasures. 


LESSON^  16. 

How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Telling  What  a  Thing  is_ 

Note  in  the  following  selections  how  the  idea  of  the  topic- 
sentence  is  developed.  The  words  to  which  special  atten- 
tion is  to  be  directed  are  printed  in  italics. 

We  will  try  to  make  some  small  piece  of  English  ground  beauti- 
ful, peaceful,  and  fruitful.  We  will  have  no  steam-engines  upon  it, 
and  no  railroads ;  we  will  have  no  untended  or  unthought-of  creatures 
on  it;  none  wretched,  but  the  sick;  none  idle,  but  the  dead.  We 
will  have  no  liberty  upon  it ;  but  instant  obedience  to  known  law, 
and  appointed  persons ;  no  equality  upon  it ;  but  recognition  of 
every  betterness  that  we  can  find,  and  reprobation  of  every  worse- 
ness.  When  we  want  to  go  anywhere,  we  will  go  there  quietly 
and  safely,  not  at  forty  miles  an  hour  in  the  risk  of  our  lives ;  when 
we  want  to  carry  anything  anywhere,  we  will  carry  it  either  on 
the  backs  of  beasts,  or  on  our  own,  or  in  carts,  or  in  boats ;  we  will 
have  plenty  of  flowers  and  vegetables  in  our  gardens,  plenty  of 
corn  and  grass  in  our  fields,  —  and  few  bricks.     We  will  have 


100  Composition-Rhetoric, 

some  music  and  poetry;  the  children  shall  learn  to  dance  to  it, 
.  and  sing  it;  perhaps  some  of  the  old  people,  in  time,  may  also. 
We  will  have  some  art,  moreover ;  we  will  at  least  try  if,  like  the 
Greeks,  we  can't  make  some  pots.  —  Ruskin:  Fors  Clavigera, 
Letter  Y. 

Ruskin,  desiring  to  tell  us  what  a  piece  of  English  ground  should 
have  in  order  to  be  beautiful,  peaceful,  and  fruitful,  begins  by  telling 
us  what  it  should  not  have.  It  should  not  have,  he  says,  steam- 
engines,  railroads,  neglected  creatures,  wretched  and  idle  men,  liberty, 
or  equality.  To  complete  the  picture,  he  then  tells  us  what  it  should 
have. 

The  scene  around  was  desolate ;  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach  it 
was  desolate :  the  bare  rocks  faced  each  other,  and  left  a  long  and 
wide  interval  of  thin  white  sand.  You  might  wander  on  and  look 
round  and  round,  and  peep  into  the  crevices  of  the  rocks  and  dis- 
cover nothing  that  acknowledged  the  influence  of  the  seasons.  There 
was  no  spring^  no  summer,  no  autumn:  and  the  winter's  snow,  that 
would  have  been  lovely,  fell  not  on  these  hot  rocks  and  scorching  sands. 
Never  morning  lark  had  poised  himself  over  this  desert ;  but  the  huge 
serpent  often  hissed  there  beneath  the  talons  of  the  vulture,  and 
the  vulture  screamed,  his  wings  imprisoned  within  the  coils  of  the 
serpent.  —  Coleridge  :  The  Wanderings  of  Cain, 

To  make  us  see  the  desolation  of  the  place,  Coleridge  tells  us  what 
could  not  be  seen  there. 

In  the  year  1865  Rome  was  still  in  a  great  measure  its  old  self. 
It  had  not  then  acquired  that  modern  air  which  is  now  beginning 
to  pervade  it.  The  Corso  had  not  been  widened  and  whitewashed ; 
the  Villa  Aldobrandini  had  not  been  cut  through  to  make  the  Via 
Nazionale;  the  south  wing  of  the  Palazzo  Colonna  still  looked 
upon  a  narrow  lane  through  which  men  hesitated  to  pass  after 
dark ;  the  Tiber's  course  had  not  then  been  corrected  below  the 
Farnesina;  the  Farnesina  itself  was  but  just  under  repair;  the 
iron  bridge  at  the  Ripetta  was  not  dreamed  of;  and  the  Prati 
di  Castello  were  still,  as  their  name  implies,  a  series  of  waste 
meadows.  —  F.  M.  Crawford:  Saracinesca,  1, 


What  to  Say.  101 

The  author  tells  us  what  Rome  was  in  1865  —  **  its  old  self""  —  by 
telling  us  what  changes  had  not  yet  taken  place.  . 

Practically,  then,  at  present,  "  advancement  in  life "  means 
becoming  conspicuous  in  life,  —  obtaining  a  position  which  shall 
be  acknowledged  by  others  to  be  respectable  or  honorable.  We  do 
not  understand  by  this  advancement,  in  general,  the  mere  making 
of  money,  but  the  being  known  to  have  made  it;  not  the  accom- 
plishment of  any  great  aim,  but  the  being  seen  to  have  accom- 
plished it.  In  a  word,  we  mean  the  gratification  of  our  thirst  for 
applause.  That  thirst,  if  the  last  infirmity  of  noble  minds,  is  also 
the  first  infirmity  of  weak  ones,  and  on  the  whole,  the  strongest 
impulsive  influence  of  average  humanity.  The  greatest  efforts  of 
the  race  have  always  been  traceable  to  the  love  of  praise,  as  its 
greatest  catastrophes  to  the  love  of  pleasure.  —  Ruskin  :  Sesame 
and  Lilies^  42. 

In  the  foregoing  we  get  a  better  idea  of  what  is  meant  by  advance- 
ment in  life  by  being  also  told  what  is  not  meant  by  it. 

When  I  first  came  to  Venice  I  accepted  the  fate  appointed  to 
young  men  on  the  Continent.  I  took  lodgings,  and  I  began  dining 
drearily  at  the  restaurants.  Worse  prandial  fortunes  may  befall 
one,  but  it  is  hard  to  conceive  of  the  calamity  as  enduring  else- 
where ;  while  the  restaurant  life  is  an  established  and  permanent 
thing  in  Italy,  for  every  celihe  and  for  many  wretched  families. 
It  is  not  because  the  restaurants  are  very  dirty  —  if  you  wipe  your 
plate  and  glass  carefully  before  using  them,  they  need  not  stomach 
you ;  it  is  not  because  the  rooms  are  cold  —  if  you  sit  near  the 
great  vase  of  smouldering  coals  in  the  centre  of  each  room  you 
may  suffocate  in  comparative  comfort ;  it  is  not  because  the  prices 
are  great,  for  they  are  really  very  reasonable ;  it  is  not  for  any  very 
tangible  fault  that  I  object  to  life  at  the  restaurants,  —  and  yet  I 
cannot  think  of  its  hopeless  homelessness  without  rebellion  against 
the  whole  system  of  existence  it  implies,  as  something  unnatural 
and  insufferable.  —  Howells  :  Venetian  Life,  76. 

The  "hopeless  homelessness"  of  restaurant  life  is  made  more  sig- 
nificant by  the  enumeration  of  other  reasons  in  negative  form. 


102  Composition-Rhetoric, 

A  fitljh  wa^  .af  expanding  a  topic-sentence  into  a  paragraph  is  to 
add  parA?oiilars  telling  what  the  subject  is  not,  or  is  not  like.     Such 
•'  ■&tateT.ients.are  usually  followed  by  statements  telling  what 
the  subject  is,  or  is  like. 

<  -,  *'  ^^ 

^^Jf"^'         EXERCISE  29. 

fhe  following  topic-sentences  are  to   be  developed  by  telling 
what  the  subject  is  not,  or  is  not  like  :  — 

1.   Niagara  made  upon  me  an  impression  quite  different 
from  what  I  had  expected. 
"  2.   I  visited  to-day  an  ideal  school-house. 

3.  The  Socialist  sees  in  the  future  a  most  desirable  state 
of  human  society. 

4.  I  will  describe  to  you  the  kind  of  picnic  that  I  should 
like  to  attend. 

J  5.  When  city  governments  shall  be  perfected  we  shall 
h(ad*dly  recognize  them. 

\/^.  The  woods  that  day  were  remarkable  for  an  unusual 
stillness. 

7.  I  shall  never  forget  my  sensations  when  I  was  told 
that  my  friend  had  proved  false. 

8.  When  to  use  will  and  when  to  use  sliall  is  a  mystery 
to  many  students. 

9.  The  meaning  of  the  word  "success"  is  frequently 
misunderstood. 

10.  What  is  the  best  method  for  the  government  to  adopt 
in  its  treatment  of  the  Indian  ?  /  / 

11..  The  newsboy  gathers  a  large  fund  bf^useful  informa- 
tion, y 

12.  This  city  presented  an  entirej^different  appearance 
only  a  few  years  ago.  ^ <^ 

13.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  keep  a  careful  account  of  your 
expenditures. 

14.  Keep  your  temper  under  control. 


^yvur"^^^ 


What  to  Say.  103 


How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Contrasts, 


Sometimes  a  paragraph-theme  can  be  most  easily  devel- 
oped by  presenting  in  the  paragraph  two  ideas  in  contrast. 
Let  us  suppose,  for  example,  that  the  writer  has  been  upon 
a  day's  fishing  excursion.  As  he  recalls  the  incidents  of 
the  day,  he  reflects  that  he  was  the  only  member  of  the 
party  who  failed  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  occasion. 
The  others  throughout  the  whole  time  made  patient  efforts 
to  catch  some  fish,  but  he  soon  wearied  of  the  sport  and 
gave  himself  up  to  reading.  He  now  attempts  to  write  an 
account  of  the  day's  adventures.  Noting  that  what  he  did 
was  different  from  what  the  others  did,  he  begins  by  tell- 
ing of  his  own  lack  of  skill  and  lack  of  interest,  and  then, 
by  way  of  contrast,  tells  of  the  patience  and  enthusiasm  of 
his  companions.  Thus  he  brings  out  the  idea  of  his  theme 
by  presenting  the  two  contrasted  ideas  contained  within  it. 
This  is  the  method  pursued  by  Washington  Irving  in  the 
following  paragraph  from  the  Sketch  Book :  — 

For  my  part,  I  was  always  a  bungler  at  all  kinds  of  sport  that 
required  either  patience  or  adroitness,  and  had  not  angled  above 
half  an  hour  before  I  had  completely  "  satisfied  the  sentiment," 
and  convinced  myself  of  the  truth  of  Izaak  Walton's  opinion,  that 
angling  is  something  like  poetry  —  a  man  must  be  born  to  it. 
I  hooked  myself  instead  of  the  fish;  tangled  my  line  in  every  tree; 
lost  my  bait;  broke  my  rod;  until  I  gave  up  the  attempt  in 
despair,  and  passed  the  day  under  the  trees,  reading  old  Izaak, 
satisfied  that  it  was  his  fascinating  vein  of  honest  simplicity  and 
rural  feeling  that  had  bewitched  me,  and  not  the  passion  for 
angling.  My  companions,  however,  were  more  persevering  in  their 
delusion.  I  have  them  at  this  moment  before  my  eyes,  stealing 
along  the  border  of  the  brook,  where  it  lay  open  to  the  day,  or 
was  merely  fringed  by  shrubs  and  bushes.     I  see  the  bittern  rising 


104  Composition-Rhetoric. 

with  hollow  scream  as  they  break  in  upon  his  rarely  invaded  haunt ; 
the  kingfisher  watching  them  suspiciously  from  his  dry  tree  that 
overhangs  the  deep  black  mill-pond,  in  the  gorge  of  the  hills ;  the 
tortoise  letting  himself  slip  sideways  from  off  the  stone  or  log  on 
which  he  is  sunning  himself;  and  the  panic-struck  frog  plumping 
in  headlong  as  they  approach,  and  spreading  an  alarm  throughout 
the  watery  world  around. 

The  following  paragraph  draws  a  contrast  between  the  spoils  system 
and  the  merit  system  ;  — 

Professor  Lounsbury,  in  his  delightful  Life  of  Cooper,  speaks 
feelingly  of  the  "  infinite  capacity  of  the  human  mind  to  withstand 
the  introduction  of  knowledge."  I  doubt  whether  even  a  college 
professor  becomes  more  sadly  and  profoundly  impressed  with  the 
truth  of  this  statement  than  does  a  civil  service  commissioner. 
The  spoils  system  of  making  appointments  to  and  removairf  from 
office  is  so  wholly  and  unmixedly  evil,  is  so  emphatically  un- 
American  and  un-democratic,  and  is  so  potent  a  force  for  deg- 
radation in  our 'public  life,  that  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  any 
intelligent  man  of  ordinary  decency  who  has  looked  into  the 
subject  can  be  its  advocate.  On  the  other  hand  the  merit  system, 
which  we  are  striving  to  put  in  its  place,  has  been  proved  by  actual 
trial  to  work  so  well  that  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  there 
can  be  any  serious  opposition  thereto,  or,  indeed,  how  it  can  fail  to 
receive  the  zealous  support  of  every  citizen  who  has  sense  enough 
to  see  what  is  best  for  the  country,  and  patriotism  enough  to 
wish  to  see  that  best  adopted.  —  T.  Roosevelt  :  The  Merit  System, 
Cosmopolitan,  May,  1892. 

The  first  member  of  the  contrast  may  be  very  brief,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph :  — 

He  could  describe  with  great  vividness,  brevity,  and  force  what 
had  happened  in  the  past,  what  actually  existed,  or  what  the  future 
promised.  But  his  fancy  never  ran  away  with  him  or  carried  him 
captive  into  the  regions  of  poetry.  Imagination  of  this  sort  is 
readily  curbed  and  controlled,  and,  if  less  brilliant,  is  safer  than 
that  defined  by  Shakespeare.  For  this  reason,  Mr.  Webster  rarely 
indulged  in  long,  descriptive  passages,  and  while  he  showed  the 
highest  power  in  treating  anything  with  a  touch  of  humanity  about 


What  to  Say,  105 

it,  he  was  sparing  of  images  drawn  wholly  from  nature,  and  was 
not  peculiarly  successful  in  depicting  in  words  natural  scenery 
or  phenomena.  The  result  is,  that  in  his  highest  flights,  while 
he  is  often  grand  and  affecting,  full  of  life  and  power,  he  never 
shows  the  creative  imagination.  But  if  he  falls  short  on  the  poetic 
side,  there  is  the  counterbalancing  advantage  that  there  is  never 
a  false  note  nor  an  overwrought  description  which  offends  our 
taste  and  jars  upon  our  sensibilities.  —  H.  C.  Lodge:  Daniel 
Webster,  188. 

Contrasts  are  often  introduced  by  words  of  connection. 
Of  these  the  most  common  are  hut  and  Jwwever.  However 
means  almost  the  same  as  hut;  if  there  is  any  difference 
between  them  it  is  that  hut  indicates  a  contrast  stronger 
and  more  abrupt  than  the  contrast  indicated  by  however. 
Yet  gives  the  impression  that  the  writer  has  checked  his 
thought  suddenly,  as  a  horseman  might  throw  his  steed  on 
its  haunches  by  a  jerk  of  the  bridle.  Still  also  checks  the 
course*  of  the  thought,  but  does  so  more  quietly  and  deliber- 
ately than  yet.  Other  words  and  expressions  used  to  intro- 
duce a  contrast  are,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding^  on  the 
other  hand,  on  the  contrary. 

With  the  exception  of  hut,  these  connectives  do  not  need 
to  stand  always  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  or  clause ; 
a  smoother  connection  is  sometimes  secured  by  placing  them 
after  an  opening  word  or  phrase,  as  in  the  selection  from 
Irving :  "  My  companions,  however,  etc." 

A  sixth  method  of  expanding  a  paragraph-theme  into  a  para- 
graph is  to  present  a  contrast  between  two  things  or  ideas. 

'  EXERCISE  30. 

Point  out  the  contrasted  ideas  in  the  following  para- 
graphs :  — 

The  modern  type-writing  machine  has  the  advantage  of  making 
all  words  equally  legible,  but  the  receiver  of  the  printed  letter  i^ 


106  Composition-Rhetoric, 

likely  to  feel  on  opening  it  a  slight  perceptible  shock  of  the  kind 
always  caused  by  a  want  of  consideration.  The  letter  so  printed 
is  undoubtedly  easier  to  read  than  all  but  the  very  clearest  manu- 
script, and  so  far  it  may  be  considered  a  politeness  to  use  the  instru- 
ment ;  ibut  unluckily  it  is  impersonal,  so  that  the  performer  on 
the  instrument  seems  far  removed  from  the  receiver  of  the  letter 
and  not  in  that  direct  communication  with  him  which  would  be 
apparent  in  an  autograph.  The  effect  on  the  mind  is  almost  like 
that  of  a  printed  circular,  or  at  least  of  a  letter  w^hich  has  been 
dictated  to  a  shorthand  writer.  —  Hamerton  :  Human  Intercourse. 

Mr.  Beecher  went  on  to  show  how  the  North  could  not  help 
fighting  when  it  was  attacked,  and  to  give  the  reasons  that  made 
it  necessary  to  fight,  reasons  which  none  but  a  consistent  Friend, 
or  avowed  non-resistant,  can  pretend  to  dispute.  His  ordinary 
style  in  speaking  is  pointed,  staccatoed,  as  is  that  of  most  success- 
ful extemporaneous  speakers ;  he  is  "  short-gaited  " ;  the  movement 
of  his  thoughts  is  that  of  the  chopping  sea,  rather  than  the  long, 
rolling,  rhythmical  v^ave-procession  of  phrase-balancing  rhetori- 
cians. But  when  the  lance  has  pricked  him  deep  enougk,  when 
the  red  flag  has  flashed  in  his  face  often  enough,  when  the  fire- 
works have  hissed  and  sputtered  around  him  long  enough,  when 
the  cheers  have  warmed  him  so  that  all  his  life  is  roused,  then  his 
intellectual  sparkle  becomes  a  steady  glow,  and  his  nimble  sen- 
tences change  their  form  and  become  long-drawn,  stately  peri- 
ods.—  O.  W.  Holmes:  Atlantic  Monthly,  January,  1864. 

Certainly,  gentlemen,  it  ought  to  be  the  happiness  and  glory  of 
a  representative  to  live  in  the  strictest  union,  the  closest  corre- 
spondence, and  the  most  unreserved  communication  wdth  his  con- 
stituents. Their  wishes  ought  to  have  great  weight  with  him ; 
their  opinion  high  respect;  their  business  unremitted  attention. 
It  is  his  duty  to  sacrifice  his  repose,  his  pleasures,  his  satisfactions, 
to  theirs;  and  above  all,  ever,  and  in  all  cases,  to  prefer  their 
interest  to  his  own.  But,  his  unbiassed  opinion,  his  mature  judg- 
ment, his  enlightened  conscience,  he  ought  not  to  sacrifice  to  you, 
to  any  man,  or  to  any  set  of  men  living.  These  he  does  not  de- 
rive from  your  pleasure ;  no,  nor  from  the  law  and  the  constitution. 
They  are  a  trust  from  Providence,  for  the  abuse  of  which  he  is 
deeply  answerable.     Your  representative  owes  you  not  his  industry 


What  to  Say.  107 

only,  but  his  judgment;  which  he  betrays,  instead  of  serving  you, 
if  he  sacrifices  it  to  your  opinion. 

My  worthy  colleague  says,  his  will  ought  to  be  subservient  to 
yours.  If  that  be  all,  the  thing  is  innocent.  If  government  were 
a  matter  of  will  upon  any  side,  yours,  without  question,  ought  to 
to  be  superior r\  But  government  and  legislatign  are  matters  of 
reason  and  juclgment,  and  not  of  inclination ;  and  what  sort  of 
reason  is  that,  in  which  the  determination  precedes  the  discussion ; 
in  which  one  set  of  men  deliberate,  and  another  decide ;  and  where 
those  who  form  the  conclusion  are  perhaps  three  hundred  miles 
distant  from  those  who  hear  the  arguments? 

To  deliver  an  opinion,  is  the  right  of  all  men ;  that  of  constit- 
uents is  a  weighty  and  respectable  opinion,  which  a  representative 
ought  always  to  rejoice  to  hear ;  and  which  he  ought  always  most 
seriously  to  consider.  But  authoritative  instructions,  mandates  is- 
sued, which  the  member  is  bound  blindly  and  implicitly  to  obey, 
to  vote,  and  to  argue  for,  though  contrary  to  the  clearest  conviction 
of  his  judgment  and  conscience,  —  these  are  things  utterly  un- 
known to  the  laws  of  this  land,  and  which  arise  from  a  fundar 
mental  mistake  of  the  whole  order  and  tenor  of  our  constitution.  — 
Burke  :  Speech  to  the  Electors  of  Bristol, 

Madison  spoke  in  the  same  strain.  He  saw  no  danger  in  a  title. 
He  did  not  believe  that  a  President,  clothed  with  all  the  powers  of 
the  Constitution  and  loaded  down  with  all  the  titles  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  would  be  a  dangerous  person  to  American  liberty.  He 
objected  to  the  principle.  If,  said  he,  we  give  titles,  we  must 
either  borrow  or  invent  them.  If  we  invent  and  deck  out  an  airy 
being  of  our  creation,  it  is  a  great  chance  but  its  fantastic  proper- 
ties render  the  empty  phantom  ridiculous  and  absurd.  If  we 
borrow,  our  servile  imitation  will  be  odious.  We  must  copy  from 
the  pompous  mjonarchs  of  the  East,  or  we  must  follow  the  inferior 
monarchs  of  Europe.  In  either  case  the  splendid  tinsel  and  the 
gorgeous  robe  will  disgrace  the  manly  shoulders  of  our  chief.  — 
McMaster  :   History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  I,  542. 

Unlike  as  Whittier  and  Franklin  were  in  many  respects,  they 
were  alike  in  others.  Both  had  the  sympathy  with  the  lowly 
which  comes  of  early  similar  experience.  Both  learned  a  handi- 
craft, for  Franklin   set  type    and  worked   a  printing-press,  and 


108  CompoBition-Rhetoric, 

Whittier  made  slippers.  To  both  of  them  literature  was  a  means, 
rather  than  an  end  in  itself.  Yerse  to  Whittier,  and  prose  to 
Franklin,  was  a  weapon  to  be  used  in  the  good  fight.  In  Whit- 
tier's  verse,  as  in  Franklin's  prose,  there  was  the  same  pithy  direct- 
ness which  made  their  words  go  home  to  the  hearts  of  the  plain 
people  whom  they  both  understood  and  represented.  To  Franklin 
was  given  the  larger  life  and  the  greater  range  of  usefulness ;  but 
Whittier  always  did  with  all  his  might  the  duty  that  lay  before 
him.  While  Franklin  gained  polish  by  travel  and  by  association 
with  citizens  of  the  world,  Whittier  was  the  only  one  of  the 
greater  American  authors  who  never  went  to  Europe,  and  he  kept 
to  the  end  not  a  little  of  his  rustic  simplicity. 

While  Whittier  was  practical,  as  becomes  a  New  Englander,  he 
had  not  the  excessive  common  sense  which  characterizes  Franklin, 
and  he  lacked  also  Franklin's  abundant  humor.  But  the  poet  w^as 
not  content,  as  Franklin  w^as,  with  showing  that  honesty  is  the 
best  policy,  and  that  in  the  long  run  vice  leads  to  ruin  ;  he  scourged 
evil  with  the  wrath  of  a  Hebrew  prophet.  Except  one  or  another 
of  his  ballads,  none  of  his  poems  was  written  for  its  own  sake ; 
they  were  nearly  all  intended  to  further  a  cause  he  held  dear,  or 
to  teach  a  lesson  he  thought  needful.  —  Brander  Matthews: 
Sl  Nicholas,  22 :  773. 


These  paragraphs  as  originally  written  contained  two 
ideas  in  contrast.     Supply  the  omitted  portion. 

Some  persons  are  very  reluctant  to  admit  that  any  race  of  men 
is  marked  by  a  fixed  and  permanent  characteristic  of  inferiority 
to  the  others,  for  fear  that  this  will  be  made  an  excuse  by  un- 
just and  wicked  men  for  treating  them  oppressively  and  cruelly. 
But    -------    -. 

There  is  one  thing  very  curious  about  this  class  of  animals  that 
get  their  living  in  a  great  measure  underwater,  and  are  consequently 
obliged  to  be  often  submerged,  even  in  the  coldest  winter  weather, 
and  that  is,  that  their  fur  becomes  very  little  wet  by  such  immer- 
sion. A  dog,  after  plunging  into  a  river,  comes  out  wet  to  the 
skin,  but  the  fur  of  a  beaver  or  a  mink    --------. 


What  to  Say.  109 

I         We  all  know  how  beautiful  and  noble  modesty  is;   how  we 
all  admire  it ;    how  it  raises   a  man   in  our  eyes   to   see  him 
afraid  of  boasting;   never   showing  off;   never   pushing  himself 
forward    --------.       Whenever,     on    the    other 

hand    --------. 

A  Venetian  who  enters  or  leaves  any  place  of  public  resort 
touches  his  hat  to  the  company,  and  one  day  at  the  restaurant 
some  ladies,  who  had  been  dining  there,  said  '^Complhnenti !"  on 
going  out  with  a  grace  that  went  near  to  make  the  beef-steak 
tender.  It  is  this  uncostly  gentleness  of  bearing  which  gives  a 
winning  impression  of  the  whole  Venetian  people,  v/hatever  selfish- 
ness or  real  discourtesy  lie  beneath  it.  At  home  [in  the  United 
States]  it  sometimes  seems    --------. 

Whittier  was  a  born  poet.  He  was  not  an  artist  in  verse  as 
Longfellow  was;  and  he  was  often  as  careless  in  rhyme  and 
as  rugged  in  rhythm  as  was  Emerson.  Yet  to  some  of  his 
stanzas    --------. 

There  are  four  different  kinds  of  running:  sprinting,  which 
includes  all  distances  up  to  the  quarter  mile;  middle-distance 
running — from  the  quarter  to  the  mile;  and  long-distance  run- 
ning, which  includes  the  mile  and  all  distances  beyond.  Besides 
these  there  is  cross-country  running.  This  last  is  best  of  all  for 
growing  boys.  The  first  three  are  track  races,  and  it  is  monotonous 
work  trotting  round  and  round  a  cinder  path.     But    -    -    -    -. 

I  have  sometimes  been  puzzled  in  Venice  to  know  why  churches 
should  keep  cats,  church-mice  being  proverbially  so  poor,  and  so 
little  capable  of  sustaining  a  cat  in  good  condition ;  yet     -    -    -. 

There  is  a  common  notion  that  animals  are  better  meteorologists 
than  men,  and  I  have  little  doubt  that  in  immediate  weather-wisdom 
they  have  the  advantage  of  our  sophisticated  senses  (though  I  sus- 
pect a  sailor  or  shepherd  would  be  their  match),  but     _    -    _    _. 

Any  slave  of  the  mine  may  find  the  rough  gem ;  but  -  -  -. 
If  Gray  cull  his  words  and  phrases  here,  there,  and  everywhere,  it 
is  he  who  charges  them  with  the  imagination  or  picturesque  touch 
which  only  he  could  give  and  which  makes  them  magnetic. 


110      Composition-Rhetoric, 

The  universal  dead-level  of  jDlainness  and  homeliness,  the  lack 
of  all  beauty  and  distinction  in  form  and  feature,  the  slowness  and 
clumsiness  of  the  language,  the  eternal  beer,  sausages,  and  bad 
tobacco,  the  blank  commonness  everywhere,  pressing  at  last  like 
a  weight  on  the  spirits  of  the  traveller  in  Northern  Germany, 
and  making  him  impatient  to  be  gone,  —  this  is  the  weak  side; 
-------,  —  this  is  the  strong  side ;  and  through  this 

side  of  her  genius,  Germany  has  already  obtained  excellent  results. 

EXERCISE  32.         :_  vO 

Develop  each  of  the  following  topic-sentences  into  a  paragraph 
by  presenting  contrasting  ideas  :  — 

1.  It  is  seldom  that  a  pupil  succeeds  equally  well  in  all 
his  studies. 

2.  Lincoln's  early  advantages  were  extremely  limited. 

3.  Kovel  reading  seems  to  be  on  the  increase. 

4.  The  world  is  growing  more  humane. 

5.  The  good  will  triumph  over  wrong. 

6.  Slavery  was  an  unmixed  evil. 

7.  The  war  against  Mexico  was  not  begun  with  unselfish 
motives. 

8.  There  have  been  temporary  evils  connected  with  the 
introduction  of  labor-saving  machinery. 

9.  Lynching  should  be  suppressed. 

10.  Jackson  and  Lincoln  present  points  of  similarity. 

11.  There  are  books  that  may  be  dismissed  with  a  single 
reading.  A 

12.  Examinations  are  a  fair  test  of  ability;. 


LESSON  18, 


.  i-AxMi 


How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Cause  and  Effect. 

When  the  topic-sentence  is  a  statement  of  something  that 
may  be  regarded  as  a  cause,  the  remaining  sentences  are  apt 


>Vj  .  ,^    ,.,.  ^^What  to^^^      ^^    111 

to  be  statements  of  an  effect  of  this  cause.  Thus  a  writer 
who  begins  a  paragraph  with  the  sentence,  "  When  the  Eo- 
mans  conquered  Greece  and  the  East,  they  saw  a  great 
many  things  which  they  had  never  seen  before/^  is  very 
likely  in  the  following  sentence  to  tell  us  how  the  Eomans 
took  to  these  new  things,  that  is,  how  Eoman  habits  and 
character  were  affected  by  them.  So  he  passes  naturally 
from  contact  with  new  things  as  a  cause,  to  changes  in  Eo- 
man character  as  an  effect.  Again,  he  may  have  occasion 
to  say  on  the  same  topic  that  ^^the  Greeks  were  much 
cleverer  than  the  Eomans,"  after  which  we  may  expect  the 
consequences  to  the  Eomans  of  contact  with  this  cleverness, 
—  it  surprised  them  or  excited  their  envy,  or  gave  them 
new  ideas.  This  method  of  growth  is  illustrated  in  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

When  the  Romans  conquered  Greece  and  the  East,  they  saw  a 
great  many  things  which  they  had  never  seen  before:  and  they 
began  to  care  more  about  eating  and  drinking  and  building  fine 
houses.  The  Greeks  were  much  cleverer  than  the  Romans,  or 
indeed  than  any  people  of  the  time,  for  all  the  best  books  and 
statues  and  pictures  of  the  old  world  had  been  made  by  the  Greek 
writers  and  artists.  So  the  Romans  not  only  learned  many  new 
things  from  the  Greeks,  but  gave  up  a^ great  many  of  their  own 
early  beliefs.  They  thought  less  of  their  own  Roman  gods,  and 
altogether  they  were  not  so  simple  or  so  good  as  they  had  been 
before.  —  M.  Creighton:  History  of  Rome  {History  Primers)  ^  52. 

The  way  in  which  the  idea  of  the  paragraph  grows  may 
be  indicated  as  follows :  — 

1.  Cause:  The  Eomans  saw  many  new  things;  effect: 
The  Eomans  began  to  care  more  about  eating  and  drinking 
and  building  fine  houses. 

2.  Cause :  The  Greeks  with  whom  they  came  in  contact 
were  cleverer  than  the  Eomans  in  literature  and  art ;  effect : 
The  Eomans  adopted  Greek  ideas  and  gave  up  their  old  be- 
liefs. 


112  Composition-Rhetoric. 

In  the  following  paragraph  describiDg  the  charge  of  the 
Light  Brigade,  Mr.  Kinglake  tells  lis  first  of  the  fire  of 
the  enemy,  then  of  the  effect  of  this  fire  upon  the  ranks 
of  the  Brigade:  — 

Pressing  always  deeper  and  deeper  into  this  pen  of  fire,  the  de- 
voted brigade,  with  Lord  Cardigan  still  at  its  head,  continued  to 
move  down  the  valley.  The  fire  the  brigade  was  incurring  had 
not  come  to  be  of  that  crushing  sort  which  mows  down  half  a 
troop  in  one  instant,  and  for  some  time  a  steady  pace  was  main- 
tained. As  often  as  a  horse  was  killed,  or  disabled,  or  deprived 
of  the  rider,  his  fall,  or  his  plunge,  or  his  ungoverned  pressure 
had  commonly  the  effect  of  enforcing  upon  the  neighboring 
chargers  more  or  less  of  lateral  movement,  and  in  this  way  there 
was  occasioned  a  slight  distention  of  the  rank  in  which  the  casu- 
alty had  occurred ;  but,  in  the  next  instant,  when  the  troopers  had 
ridden  clear  of  the  disturbing  cause,  they  closed  up,  and  rode  on 
in  a  line  as  even  as  before,  though  reduced  by  the  loss  just  sus- 
tained. The  movement  occasioned  by  each  casualty  was  so  con- 
stantly recurring,  and  so  constantly  followed  by  the  same  process, 
—  the  process  of  reclosing  the  ranks,  that,  to  distant  observers, 
the  alternate  distention  and  contraction  of  the  line  seemed  to 
have  the  precision  and  sameness  which  belong  to  mechanic 
contrivance.  Of  these  distant  observers  there  was  one  —  and  that 
too  a  soldier  —  who  so  felt  to  the  heart  the  true  import  of  what  he 
saw  that,  in  a  paroxysm  of  admiration  and  grief,  he  burst  into 
tears.  In  well-maintained  order,  but  growing  less  every  instant, 
our  squadron  still  moved  down  the  valley.  —  Invasion  of  the  Crimea, 

ir,  517. 

In  the  foregoing  may  be  seen  a  second  example  of  an  effect  follow- 
ing a  cause  —  the  tears  of  the  soldier  are  caused  by  the  movement  of 
the  line  which  he  is  observing. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  relation  of  cause  to  effect  is 
usually  indicated  by  means  of  conjunctions  and  connecting 
phrases.  Such  expressions  as  hence,  so,  so  that,  therefore,  for, 
thus,  accordingly,  consequently,  in  consequence,  as  a  result, 
are  employed  for  this  purpose. 


What  to  Say.  113 

A  seventh  metliod  of  expanding  a  paragraph-theme  into  a  para- 
graph consists  in  stating  something  that  is  regarded  as  a  cause, 
and  following  it  by  a  statement  of  the  effects  or  consequences  of 
the  cause. 

In  the  following  paragraphs,  point  out  ideas  which  are 
vrelated  to  one  another  as  cause  to  effect :  — 

//^  ^he  friction  in  the  minute  arteries  and  capillaries  presents  a 
considerable  resistance  to  the  flow  of  blood  through  them  into  the 
small  veins.  ]  In  consequence  of  this  resistance,  the  force  of  the 
heart's  beat  is  spent  in  maintaining  the  whole  of  the  arterial 
system  in  a  state  of  great  distention ;  the  arterial  walls  are  put 
greatly  on  the  stretch  by  the  pressure  of  the  blood  thrust  into 
them  by  the  repeated  strokes  of  the  heart;  ;4ihis  is  the  pressure 
which  we  spoke  of  above  as  blood-pressure.  —  Foster  :  Physiology, 
chap.  lY. 

There  was  a  salt  marsh  that  bounded  part  of  the  mill-pond,  on 
the  edge  of  which,  at  high-water,  we  used  to  stand  to  fish  for 
minnows.')-.  By  much  trampling,  we  had  made  it  a  mere  quagmire. 
3,  My  proposal  was  to  build  a  wharf  there  fit  for  us  to  stand  upon, 
and  I  showed  my  comrades  a  large  heap  of  stones  which  were 
intended  for  a  new  house  near  the  marsh,  and  which  would  very 
well  suit  our  purpose.  -  Accordingly,  in  the  evening,  when  the 
workmen  were  gone,  I  assembled  a  number  of  my  playfellows, 
and  working  with  them  diligently,  like  so  many  emmets,  some- 
times two  or  three  to  a  stone,  we  brought  them  all  away  and  built 
our  little  wharf.  The  next  morning  the  workmen  were  surprised 
at  missing  the  stones,  which  were  found  in  our  wharf.  ^^  Inquiry 
was  made  after  the  removers ;  we  were  discovered,  and  complained 
of ;  several  of  us  were  corrected  by  our  fathers ;  and  though  I 
pleaded  the  usefulness  of  the  work,  mine  convinced  me  that  nothing 
was  useful  which  was  not  honest.  —  Franklin  :  Autobiography. 

At  court,  and  in  the  castles  of  the  great  nobles,  where  the  pomp 
and  state  of  a  court  were  emulated,  Norman-French  was  the  only 
language  employed ;  in  courts  of  law  the  pleadings  and  judgments 


114  Composition- Rhetoric. 


were  delivered  in  the  same  tongue.  Q[n  short,  French  was  the 
language  of  honor,  of  chivalry,  and  eveii~6TyusfTce^  while  the 
far  more  manly  and  expressive  Anglo-Saxon  was  abandoned  to 
the  use  of  rustics  and  hinds,  who  knew  no  other.  _Still,  however, 
the  necessary  intercourse  between  the  lords  of  the  soil  and  those 
oppressed  inferior  beings  by  whom  that  soil  was  cultivated  occa- 
sioned the  gradual  formation  of  a  dialect  compounded  betwixt  the 
French  and  the  Anglo-Saxon,  in  which  they  could  render  them- 
selves mutually  intelligible  to  each  other ;  and  from  this  necessity 
arose  by  degrees  the  structure  of  our  present  English  language,  in 
which  the  speech  of  the  victors  and  the  vanquished  have  been 
so  happily  blended  together,  and  which  has  since  been  so  richly 
improved  by  importations  from  the  classical  languages,  and  from 
those  spoken  by  the  southern  nations  of  Europe.  —  Scott  :  Ivanhoe, 
chap.  I. 

The  insular  form  of  Great  Britain  gave  it  a  certain  advantage 
over  the  continent  during  the  age  when  the  northern  tribes  were 
plundering  Rome  and  devastating  the  countries  of  southern  Europe. 
As  their  invasions  of  England  could  only  be  by  sea,  they  were 
necessarily  on  a  comparatively  small  scale.  They  could  not  at 
once  overrun  the  whole  land,  as  they  did  in  France,  and  hence  the 
strife  was  long  maintained  by  hope  of  successful  resistance ;  and 
thus  courage  and  the  virtues  that  depend  on  courage  were  kept 
alive  and  transmitted.  —  Montgomery  :  The  Leading  Facts  of 
English  History^  7. 

A  warm  and  moist  wind,  the  south-west  of  the  Atlantic,  for 
example,  setting  from  the  tropics,  comes  in  contact  with  the 
colder  air  of  the  temperate  regions^  its  temperature  is  lowered ; 
it  can  no  longer  contain  as  great  a  quantity  of  vapor.  A  por- 
tion of  its  humidity  is  immediately  condensed  into  clouds,  then 
falls  in  rain. 

Or  the  opposite;  a  wind  charged  with  clouds  arrives  in  a 
warmer  and  dryer  air;  comes,  for  example,  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  the  Sahara,  as  is  the  case  during  three-fourths  of  the 
year ;  the  burning  air  of  the  desert,  having  a  much  greater  capacity 
for  vapor,  dissipates  instantly  all  these  clouds,  that  break  up, 
vanish,  and  disappoint  the  excited  expectation  of  the  traveller, 
who  hoped  for  refreshing  rains.  —  Guyot  :  Earth  and  Man,  152. 


What  to  Say.  115 

EXERCISE  34. 

These  paragraphs  as  originally  written  contained  a  state- 
ment of  a  cause  followed  by  a  statement  of  a  result  of  that 
cause.     Supply  the  omitted  portion. 

Some  tribes,  especially  those  that  lived  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  great  lakes,  made  certain  tools  and  implements  of  copper, 
which  metal,  it  is  said,  they  had  some  means  of  hardening,  so  that 
it  would  cut  wood  tolerably  well.  But  they  had  no  iron.  Accord- 
ingly   -_----_-.; 

The  coming  of  the  Europeans  to  this  country  brought  new 
races  not  only  of  men,  but  also  of  plants  and  animals,  into  con- 
tact and  connection  with  those  previously  .existing  here.  The 
result  was  JtJM^  A  iH,UJ=:  (XaiOU,. ,.  M-Mrn  OH^Jua  AJ^p 

Every  American  boy  should  learn  to  run.  The  English  boy  is 
encouraged  to  run.  In  fact,  at  some  of  the  great  English  public 
schools,  boys  of  thirteen  and  fourteen  years  of  age,  like  Tom 
Brown  and  East  at  Rugby,  can  cover  six  and  eight  miles  cross- 
country in  the  great  hare-and-hounds  runs.  Every  boy  is  turned 
out  twice  a  week,  out  of  doors,  and  made  to  run,  and  fill  himself 
full  of  pure  fresh  air  and  sunshine,  and  gain  more  strength  and 
life  than  any  amount  of  weight-pulling  or  dumb-bell  work  in  stuffy 
gymnasiums  would  give  him.     See  the  result . 

By  the  ArticlesyOf  Confederation  the  General  Government  had 
no  power  to  levy  taxes,  and  yet  it  had  power  to  incur  debts.  The 
result  was    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -. 

The  relation  of  trades  unions  to  civilization  is  much  misunder- 
stood, and  this  misunderstanding  has  resulted  in    -    -    -    -    -. 

Organized  labor  has  for  some  time  been  limiting  the  number  of 
apprentices  that  may  be  admitted  at  any  one  time  to  a  shop  or  a 
factory  in  order  to  learn  a  trade.  In  some  lines  of  work  one  boy 
to  four  journeymen  is  the  rule ;  in  others,  where  the  union  influ- 
ence is  strong,  not  more  than  one  boy  for  every  eight,  or  ten,  or  a 
dozen,  mechanics  is  permitted.     The  consequence  is    -    -    -    -. 

That  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the  Spartan  constitution  were 
admirably  adapted  to  the  end  in  view,  —  the  rearing  of  a  nation 


116  Composition-Rhetoric . 

of  skilful  and  resolute  warriors,  —  the  long  military  supremacy  ol 
Sparta  among  the  states  of  Greece  abundantly  attests.  But  when 
we  consider  the  aim  and  object  of  the  Spartan  institutions,  we 
must  pronounce  them  low  and  unworthy.  The  true  order  of 
things  was  just  reversed  among  the  Lacedaemonians.  Govern- 
ment exists  for  the  individual :  at  Sparta  the  individual  lived  for 
the  state.  The  body  is  intended  to  be  the  instrument  of  the  mind : 
the  Spartans  reversed  this,  and  attended  to  the  education  of  the 
mind  only  so  far  as  its  development  enhanced  the  effectiveness  of 
the  body  as  a  weapon  in  warfare.  [Results]  --_-__. 
Sparta,  in  significant  contrast  to  Athens,  bequeathed  nothing  to 
posterity. 

During  the  last  fifty  years  the  continents  have  been  covered 
with  a  perfect  network  of  railroads,  constructed  at  an  enormous 
cost  of  labor  and  capital.  The  aggregate  length  of  the  world's 
steam  railways  in  1883  was  about  275,000  miles,  sufficient,  to  use 
Mulhall's  illustration,  to  girdle  the  earth  eleven  times  at  the 
equator,  or  more  than  sufficient  to  reach  from  the  earth  to  the 
moon.  The  continental  lines  of  railways  are  made  virtually  con- 
tinuous round  the  world  by  connecting  lines  of  ocean  steamers. 
Telegraph  wires  traverse  the  continents  in  all  directions,  and 
cables  run  beneath  all  the  oceans  of  the  globe.  By  these  inven- 
tions   --------. 

Jefferson's  interest  in  public  affairs  had  become  a  part  of  his 
nature,  and  could  not  suddenly  cease.  Accordingly  in  his  retire- 
ment   _-------. 

The  people  saw,  in  Washington,  the  hero  of  the  war  for  inde- 
pendence, the  austere  champion  of  their  liberties,  the  devoted 
leader  of  ill-fed,  ill-clad  armies  fighting  against  fearful  odds. 
They  knew  that  his  life  had  been  pure,  that  under  an  exterior 
seemingly  cold  there  beat  a  warm  and  hospitable  heart.  What 
wonder  then  that    --------. 


EXERCISE  35. 


~t«4£? 


Develop  each  of  the  following  topic-sentences  into  a  paragraph 
by  presenting  the  result  which  seems  naturally  to  flow  from  each :  — 


^' 


What  to  Say.  117 

1.  The  use  of  narcotics  is  injurious  to  the  nerves,  and 
tunts  the  growing  body. 

2.  The  school-room  was  forbidding  in  appearance :  the 
windows  were  dirty,  the  walls  were  bare  and  cheerless,  and 
the  switch  occupied  the  most  prominent  place  in  the  room. 

3.  The  framers  of  the  Constitution  thought  that  slavery 
would  die  out  after  a  time. 

4.  Poe  believed  that  every  literary  production  should  be 
short  enough  to  be  read  at  one  sitting. 

5.  Washington  knew,  better  than  Braddock,  the  methods 
of  Indian  warfare. 

6.  Peoj)le  in  our  crowded  cities  have  at  last  learned  that 
good  sanitary  arrangements  are  absolutely  necessary  to  pub- 
lic health. 

7.  The  colonists,  as  English  subjects,  felt  themselves 
entitled  to  all  the  rights  guaranteed  by  the  British  Consti- 
tution. 

8.  No  two  men  differed  more  widely  than  Hamilton  and 

Jefferson  in  their  ideas  of  government  and  finance. 
^  9.    Whittier  felt  keenly  the  national  disgrace  of  slavery. 

10.  Our  forefathers  thought  that  only  the  wisest  men  in 
the  nation  should  choose  the  President. 

11.  School  -authorities  have  come  to  see  the  importance 
of  physical  culture. 

12.  The  people  of  the  North  refused  to  believe  that  the 
South  was  serious  in  its  preparations  for  war  and  in  its 
threats  of  secession. 


U^" 


LESSON  19. 

How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Proofs. 

If  a  writer  should  begin  a  paragraph  with  the  topic-sen- 
tence, "  The  Greeks  did  not  understand  athletics  at  all  so 
well  as  the  English  do,''  many  readers  would  question  the 


118  Composition-Rhetoric, 

truth  of  the  statement.  They  would  say  that  the  Greeks 
both  understood  athletics  and  practised  athletics  better  than 
any  other  people  in  the  history  of  the  world,  and  they  would 
want  to  know  on  what  ground  so  preposterous  a  notion  was 
advanced.  It  would  then  be  the  business  of  the  writer,  if 
he  wanted  his  readers  to  agree  with  him,  to  bring  forward 
the  grounds  or  proofs  of  his  assertion.  By  pointing  out 
defects  in  the  Greek  system  of  training  or  manner  of  con- 
ducting athletic  contests,  or,  perhaps,  by  quoting  from  the 
opinions  of  the  Greeks  themselves,  he  would  endeavor  to 
make  his  opening  sentence  seem  probable  or  true.  Such  is 
the  method  employed  in  the  following  paragraph :  — 

Though  extraordinary  feats  were  sometimes  recorded,  I  believe 
that  the  Greeks  did  not  understand  athletics  at  all  so  well  as  the 
English  do.  Two  facts  may  be  mentioned  in  proof  of  this.  The 
runners  are  said  to  have  started  shouting.  The  boxers,  who  had 
their  fists  weighted  with  loaded  leather  gloves,  swung  round  at  one 
another's  ears,  instead  of  striking  straight  home.  What  we  hear 
about  their  training  seems  equally  stupid ;  their  trained  men  are 
described  as  generally  sleepy,  they  fed  on  enormous  quantities 
of  meat,  and  were  obliged  to  swear  that  they  had  spent  ten  months 
in  training  before  the  games.  Good  generals,  such  as  Alexander 
and  Philopoemen,  discountenanced  athletics  as  producing  bad 
soldiers.  But,  nevertheless,  the  combination  of  art  contests  with 
athletics  made  the  Greek  meetings  finer  and  more  imposing  than 
ours.  —  J.  P.  Mahaffy:  Old  Greek  Life^  77. 

By  this  method  Professor  Jebb  develops  the  thought  that  the 
Greeks  were  the  first  people  to  make  reason  the  guide  of  social 
life:  — 

The  Greeks  were  not  the  first  people  who  found  out  how  to  till 
the  earth  well,  or  to  fashion  metals,  or  to  grow  rich  by  war  or 
commerce,  or  to  build  splendid  houses  and  temples.  But  they 
were  the  first  people  who  tried  to  make  reason  the  guide  of  their 
social  life.  One  proof  of  this  is  found  in  the  very  existence  of  the 
Greek  cities.     While  other  men  were  living  in  tribes  or  under 


What  to  Say.  119 

despotic  kings,  the  Greeks  had  already  gathered  themselves 
together  in  cities,  —  societies  ruled,  not  by  force,  but  by  the  per- 
suasions of  equal  law.  Another  proof  of  it  is  found  in  the  Greek 
books.  There  we  find  writers  of  all  sorts,  poets  and  historians 
and  philosophers,  habitually  striving  to  get  at  the  reasons  of  things. 
On  this  side,  Greek  literature  has  an  interest  such  as  belongs  to  no 
other  literature.  It  shows  us  how  some  questions  which  have  been 
solved  since,  and  others  which  are  being  discussed  still,  appeared 
to  the  people  who  first  seriously  tried  to  answer  them.  —  R.  C.  Jebb  : 
Primer  of  Greek  Literature^  6. 

An  eighth  way  of  developing  a  paragraph-theme  consists  in  add- 
ing to  the  topic-sentence  sentences  containing  proofs. 

EXERCISE  36.       ^^^bj 
In  each  of  the  following  paragraphs,  what  is  tlie  exact 
idea  to  be  proved?     Point  out  the  sentences  which  prove 
this  idea. 

/  The  death  of  Caesar  was  an  irreparable  loss,  not  only  to  the 
Roman  people,  but  to  the  whole  civilized  world  ;|for  the  Republic 
was  utterly  ruined,  and  no  earthly  power  could  restore  it.  ■  Caesar's 
death  involved  the  State  in  fresh  struggles  and  civil  wars  for  many 
a  year,  until  in  the  end  it  fell  again  (and  this  was  the  best  that, 
under  the  circumstances,  could  have  happened  to  it)  under  the 
supremacy  of  Augustus,  who  had  neither  the  talent,  nor  the  will, 
nor  the  power,  to  carry  out  all  the  beneficent  plans  which  his 
great-uncle  had  formed.r3lt  has  been  truly  said,  that  the  murder 
of  Caesar  was  the  most  senseless  act  the  Romans  ever  committed. 
Had  it  been  possible  at  all  to  restore  the  Republic,  it  would  una- 
voidably have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  a  most  profligate  aristocracy; 
who  would  have  sought  nothing  but  their  own  aggrandizement; 
would  have  demoralized  the  people  still  more;  and  would  have 
established  their  own  greatness  upon  the  ruins  of  their  country. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  recollect  the  latter  years  of  the  Republic, 
the  depravity  and  corruption  of  the  ruling  classes,  the  scenes  of 
violence  and  blood-shed  which  constantly  occurred  in  the  streets 
of  Rome,  to  render  it  evident  to  every  one  that  peace  and  security 


120  Oomposition-Rhetoric, 

could  not  be  restored,  except  by  the  strong  hand  of  a  sovereign ; 
and  the  Roman  world  would  have  been  fortunate  indeed,  if  it  had 
submitted  to  the  mild  and  beneficent  sway  of  Csesar.  —  Schmitz: 
History  of  Rome. 

'  An  abuse  like  our  spoils  system  does  not  remain  stationary. 
Either  it  will  be  reformed,  or  it  will  increase  by  its  own  momen- 
tum, till  we  shall  see,  at  first  cautiously^and  under  specious  pre- 
tenses, and  finally  as  a  matter  of  courseiall  the  best  offices  in  the 
army  and  navy  appropriated  at  every  cEange  of  administration 
on  the  theory  "  To  the  victors  belong  the  spoils."3^  And  why  not? 
It  would  be  as  reasonable  and  just  to  make  changes  in  military 
and  naval  offices  on  party  grounds  as  it  is  in  the  civil  service 3  H  /  ;  ^ 
such  changes  are  good  for  the  civil  service,  they  ought  to  be  good,  '1^' 
for  other  branches  of  the  service.  L,This  is  the  way  the  advocates^ 
of  rotation  would  argue ;  and  although  such  a  development  of  the. 
spoils  system  would  be  deprecated  by  all  friends  of  good  adminis- 
tration, we  must  not  be  too  confident  it  will  not  occur.  —  Andrews  : 
Administrative  Reform,  28. 

Competition  is  the  best  security  for  cheapness,  but  by  no  meant 
a  security  for  quality.  In  former  times,  when  producers  and 
consumers  were  less  numerous,  it  was  a  security  for  both.  :  The 
niarket  was  not  large  enough  nor  the  means  of  publicity  sufficient 
to  enable  a  dealer  to  make  a  fortune  by  continually  attracting  new 
,  ^customers:  his  success  depended  on  his  retaining  those  that  he 
[.Aj  had;  and  when  a  dealer  furnished  good  articles,  or  when  he  did 
'  ,  not,  the  fact  was  soon  known  to  those  whom  it  concerned,  and  he 
acquired  a  character  for  honest  or  dishonest  dealing  of  more  im- 
portance to  him  than  the  gain  that  would  be  made  by  cheating  a 
casual  purchasers. l^But  on  the  great  scale  of  modern  transactions,  ^  JL 
with  the  great  multiplication  of  competition  and  the  immense  v. 
increase  in  the  quantity  of  business  competed  for,  dealers  are  so 
little  dependent  on  permanent  customers  that  character  is  much 
less  essential  to  them,  while  there  is  also^ar  less  certainty  of  their 
obtaining  the  character  they  deserve.  h>  The  low  prices  which  a 
tradesman  advertises  are  known  to  a  thousand,  for  one  who  has 
discovered  for  himself  or  learned  from  others  that  the  bad  quality 
of  the  goods  is  more  than  an  equivalent  for  their  cheapness. — 
Mill  :  Chapters  on  Socialism. 


What  to  Say.  121 

It  does  not  appear  that  Shakespeare  thought  his  works  worthy 
of  posterity,  that  he  levied  any  ideal  tribute  upon  future  times, 
or  had  any  further  prospect  than  of  present  popularity  and  present 
profit.  When  his  plays  had  been  acted,  his  hope  was  at  an  end ; 
he  solicited  no  addition  of  honor  from  the  reader.  He  therefore 
made  no  scruple  to  repeat  the  same  jests  in  many  dialogues,  or  to 
entangle  different  plots  by  the  same  knot  of  perplexity;  which 
may  be  at  least  forgiven  him  by  those  who  recollect  that  of  Con- 
greve's  four  comedies,  two  are  concluded  by  a  marriage  in  a  mask, 
by  a  deception  which  perhaps  never  happened,  and  which,  whether 
likely  or  not,  he  did  not  invent. 

So  careless  was  this  great  poet  of  future  fame  that,  though  he 
retired  to  ease  and  plenty  while  he  was  yet  little  "  declined  into 
the  vale  of  years,"  before  he  could  be  disgusted  with  fatigue,  or 
disabled  by  infirmity,  he  made  no  collection  of  his  works,  nor 
desired  to  rescue  those  that  had  been  already  published  from  the 
depravations  that  obscured  them,  or  secure  to  the  rest  a  better 
destiny,  by  giving  them  to  the  world  in  their  genuine  state. 

Of  the  plays  which  bear  the  name  of  Shakespeare  in  the  late 
editions,  the  greater  part  were  not  published  till  about  seven  years 
after  his  death ;  and  the  few  which  appeared  in  his  life  are  appar- 
ently thrust  into  the  world  without  the  care  of  the  author,  and 
therefore  probably  without  his  knowledge.  —  Johnson  :  Preface  to 
Shakespeare. 

In  rural  occupation  there  is  nothing  mean  and  debasing.  It 
leads  a  man  forth  among  scenes  of  natural  grandeur  and  beauty ; 
it  leaves  him  to  the  workings  of  his  own  mind,  operated  upon  by 
the  purest  and  most  elevating  of  external  influences.  Such  a  man 
may  be  simple  and  rough,  but  he  cannot  be  vulgar.  The  man  of 
refinement,  therefore,  finds  nothing  revolting  in  an  intercourse 
with  the  lower  orders  of  rural  life,  as  he  does  when  he  casually 
mingles  with  the  lower  orders  of  cities.  He  lays  aside  his  distance 
and  reserve,  and  is  glad  to  waive  the  distinctions  of  rank,  and  to 
enter  into  the  honest,  heartfelt  enjoyments  of  common  life.  Indeed, 
the  very  amuiiements  of  the  country  bring  men  more  and  more 
together,  and  the  sound  of  hound  and  horn  blend  all  feelings  into 
harmony.  I  believe  this  is  one  great  reason  why  the  nobility  and 
gentry  are  more  popular  among  the  inferior  orders  in  England 


122  Composition-Rhetoric, 

than  they  are  in  any  other  country;  and  why  the  latter  have 
endured  so  many  excessive  pressures  and  extremities,  without 
repining  more  generally  at  the  unequal  distribution  of  fortune 
and  privilege.  —  Irving  :  Sketch  Book :  Rural  Life  in  England. 

It  is  too  soon  as  yet  to  attempt  to  estimate  the  effect  of  the 
Reform  Act  of  1867.  The  people  enfranchised  under  it  do  not 
yet  know  their  own  power :  a  single  election,  so  far  from  teaching 
us  how  they  will  use  that  power,  has  not  been  even  enough  to 
explain  to  them  that  they  have  such  power.  The  Reform  Act  of 
1832  did  not  for  niany  years  disclose  its  real  consequences ;  a 
writer  in  1836,  whether  he  approved  or  disapproved  of  them, 
whether  he  thought  too  little  of,  or  whether  he  exaggerated  them, 
would  have  been  sure  to  be  mistaken  in  them.  —  Bagehot  :  Eng- 
lish Constitution,  3. 

I  \  ^y^  EXERCISE  37.      ^      ZZ^ 

Supply  proofs  for  each  of  the  following  topic-sentences,  or  of 
their  opposites :  — 

1.  Shorter  political  campaigns  are  desirable. 

2.  Shy  lock's  treatment  was  unjust. 

3.  The   United   States   should  have  a  larger   standing 
army. 

4.  Local  elections  should  be  free  from  partisanship. 

5.  The  primary  object  of  the  Civil  War  was  not  to  free 
the  slaves. 

6.  One  may  read  too  much  even  in  good  books. 

7.  Statesmanship  in  Congress  is  not  declining. 

8.  A  general  European  war  would  be  a  good  thing  for 
American  farmers. 

9.  The  acquisition  of  Cuba  by  the  United  States  is  not 
desirable. 

10.  Labor-saving  machinery  benefits  labor. 

11.  It  is  a  bad  policy  to  strike. 

12.  The  advantages  of  travel  are  over-estimated. 


What  to  Say,  123 


LESSON  20. 

How  Paragraphs  Grow  —  Combination  of  Two  or  More 
Methods. 

Two  or  more  of  the  foregoing  methods  of  development 
are  frequently  illustrated  in  a  single  paragraph. 

1.  In  few  things  is  the  great  advance  made  in  this  country 
during  the  past  one  hundred  years  more  strikingly  apparent  than 
in  the  change  which  has  taken  place  in  the  social  and  intellectual 
condition  of  the  school-master.  2.  The  education  of  the  young 
has  now  become  a  lucrative  profession  by  itself  and  numbers 
among  its  followers  many  of  the  choicest  minds  of  the  age. 
3.  The  school-master  is  specially  prepared  for  his  work,  and  is  in 
receipt  of  a  &um  sufficient  to  maintain  him  in  comfort,  to  enable 
him  to  procure  books,  and,  if  he  be  so  inclined,  to  travel.  4.  Book- 
sellers and  publishers  make  a  liberal  discount  in  his  behalf.  5.  The 
government  allows  him  to  import  the  text-books  and  apparatus 
used  in  his  work  duty  free.  6.  He  is  everywhere  regarded  as  an 
eminently  useful  member  of  society.  7.  But  the  lot  of  the  school- 
master who  taught  in  the  district  school-house  three  generations 
since  fell  in  a  very  different  time  and  among  a  very  different 
people.  8.  School  was  then  held  in  the  little  red  school-house  for 
two  months  in  the  winter  by  a  man,  and  for  two  months  in  the 
summer  by  a  woman.  9.  The  boys  went  in  the  winter,  the  girls 
in  the  summer.  10.  The  master  was  generally  a  divinity  student 
who  had  graduated  at  one  of  the  academies,  who  had  scarcely 
passed  out  of  his  teens,  and  who  sought  by  the  scanty  profits  de- 
rived from  a  winter's  teaching  to  defray  the  expenses  of  his  study 
at  Harvard  or  at  Yale.  11.  His  pay  was  small,  yet  he  was  never 
called  upon  to  lay  out  any  portion  of  it  for  his  keep.  12.  If  the 
district  were  populous  and  wealthy  a  little  sum  was  annually  set 
apart  for  his  board,  and  he  was  placed  with  a  farmer  who  would, 
for  that  amount,  board  and  lodge  him  the  longest  time.  13.  But 
this  was  far  too  expensive  a  method  for  many  of  the  districts,  and 
the  master  was,  therefore,  expected  to  live  with  the  parents  of  his 
pupils,  regulating  the  length  of  his  stay  by  the  number  of  the  boys 


124  Composition-Rhetoi'ic, 

in  the  family  attending  his  school.  14.  Thus  it  happened  that  in 
the  course  of  his  teaching  he  became  an  inmate  of  all  the  houses 
of  the  district,  and  was  not  seldom  forced  to  walk  five  miles,  in  the 
worst  of  weather  over  the  w^orst  of  roads,  to  his  school.  15.  Yet, 
mendicant  though  he  was,  it  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  suppose 
that  he  was  not  always  a  welcome  guest.  16.  He  slept  in  the  best 
room,  sat  in  the  warmest  nook  by  the  fire,  and  had  the  best  food 
set  before  him  at  the  table.  17.  In  the  long  winter  evenings  he 
helped  the  boys  with  their  lessons,  held  yarn  for  the  daughters,  or 
escorted  them  to  spinning  matches  or  quiltings.  18.  In  return  for 
his  miserable  pittance  and  his  board  the  young  student  taught 
what  would  now  be  considered  as  the  rudiments  of  an  education. 
19.  His  daily  labors  were  confined  to  teaching  his  scholars  to  read 
with  a  moderate  degree  of  fluency,  to  write  legibly,  to  speU  with 
some  regard  for  the  rules  of  orthography,  and  to  know  as  much 
of  the  rules  of  arithmetic  as  would  enable  them  to  calculate  the 
interest  on  a  debt,  to  keep  the  family  accounts,  and  to  make 
change  in  a  shop.  —  McMaster  :  History  of  the  People  of  the 
United  States, 

Taken  as  a  whole  the  foregoing  paragraph  illustrates  the 
method  of  contrast,  the  condition  of  the  ancient  school- 
master (sentences  7-19)  being  contrasted  with  the  condition 
of  the  modern  (sentences  2-6).  But  in  the  development  of 
the  contrasted  ideas  several  other  methods  are  exemplified. 
Thus  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that  the  contrasted 
ideas  are  themselves  developed  by  the  method  of  particu- 
lars. Again,  the  ideas  in  sentences  13  and  14  are  related 
to  each  other  respectively  as  cause  and  effect,  and  the  idea 
of  sentence  15,  that  the  school-master  was  a  welcome  guest, 
is  developed  in  sentences  16  and  17  by  means  of  illustrative 
particulars.  A  minor  contrast  appears  in  sentence-groups 
10-14  and  15-17. 

Note  in  this  paragraph  the  words  used  to  show  the  con- 
nection of  ideas :  in  sentence  7,  but;  in  sentence  11,  yet;  in 
sentence  13,  but^  therefore;  in  sentence  14,  thus;  in  sentence 
15,  yet. 


What  to  Say,  125 

EXERCISE  ^  38. 

Distinguish  the   methods   of   development  used  in   the 
following  paragraphs:  — 

Women  as  Household  Decorators. 

[From  Women  and  Men^  by  permission.    Copyright,  1887,  by  Harper  and 

'  It  once  hajipened  to  me  to  spend  a  day  or  two  in  a  country-house 
where  the  different  rooms  gave  unconscious  object-lessons  to  show 
the  gradual  change  of  taste  in  household  decoration..;  One  room  — 
the  sitting-room  of  an  elderly  invalid  —  represented  what  might  be 
called  the  iron  age  of  furnishing ;  everything  was  dark  mahogany 
and  hair-cloth ;  there  was  not  a  chair  or  a  sofa  on  which  you  could 
retain  youo*  seat  without  a  struggle,  so  polished  and  so  slippery  were 
they  all. "  The  walls  were  hung  with  dark  portraits  in  dark  frames, 
or  smaller  daguerreotypes  in  circles  of  black  walnut ;  the  only  spots 
of  color  were  found  in  one  faded  sampler,  and  in  the  gilded  circu- 
lar frame  of^^^very  small  mirror  hung  too  high  for  use. 
-t^.  It  was  cuHbttsHa^^Ss  from  this  sombre  abode  into  the  bedroom 
I  occupied,  which  had  been  fitted  up  by  an  elder  sister,  long  since 
married,  and  whose  girlhood  fell  in  what  might  be  called  the  glacial 
period  of  thirty  years  ago.,;.  Here  everything  was  white  instead  of 
dark  —  white  Parian  statuettes,  white  fluffy  embroideries,  a  white 
cross  cut  in  complicated  fashion  out  of  paper,  surrounded  with 
white  flowers  and  hung  in  a  white  frame  against  a  white  wall.  On 
the  mantel-piece  stood  a  pair  of  cut-glass  vases,  bearing  great  clus- 
ters of  dried  grasses,  bleached  almost  colorless  by  time.  The  furni- 
ture was  of  straw,  and  the  counterpane  was  of  white  damask.  If  the 
room  of  the  iron  age  was  depressing,  this  was  even  more  so ;  it  was 
^  like  passing  from  an  underground  cave  into  a  chilly  world  of  ice. 
yTy^^  But  a  third  experience  was  offered  on  proceeding  to  the  parlor, 
^  which  had  been  given  over  to  the  charge  of  the  youngest  daughter, 
fresh  from  an  art  school.  From  this  room  every  article  of  pure 
white  or  jet  black  had  been  banished ;  the  eye  wandered  from  one 
half  tint  to  another,  or  if  any  bit  of  positive  color  arrested  the  gaze, 
it  was  some  unexpected  stroke  of  bold  yellow  or  regal  red. "  ^o  two 
chairs  were  alike ;  nothing  was  paired ;  the  carved  marble  mantel- 


126  Composition- Rhetoric, 


^ 


piece  was  concealed  by  a  lambrequin ;  there  were  screens,  fans,  a 
knot  of  some  Oriental  stuff  at  the  back  of  every  chair,  three  vari- 
ous vases  of  bulrushes,  and  seven  seltzer-water  jars  painted  by  the 
young  lady  herself.  This  room  did  not  belong  to  the  iron  age,  nor 
yet  to  the  glacial,  but  to  the  recent  or  Japanese  formation.'  Con- 
sidered as  a  step  forward  from  the  earlier  stages  represented  in 
that  house,  it  indicated  a  great  advance ;  regarded  as  a  finality,  it 
,was  something  to  appall  the  human  heart. 
X  Now  all  these  successive  transformations  were  the  work  of 
women,  and  they  suggest  the  question.  If  woman  is  thus  the  born 
and  appointed  decorator  of  the  home,  why  should  she  not  be  trained 
to  do  it  artistically  and  professionally?  -It  is  not  truly  artistic  to 
plunge  at  once  into  the  most  exclusive  extreme  of  the  present 
fashion,  whether  it  lead  to  black,  or  white,  or  a  multiplicity  of 
hue,  but  to  take  what  is  truly  the  best  of  each  period  and  adapt  it 
gracefully  to  modern  use  and  to  the  needs  of  each  separate  family. 
In  many  houses  this  is  now  exquisitely  done ;  no  one  can  deny  the 
great  improvement  in  our  "interiors"  within  twenty  years.  But 
if  it  is  to  be  done  systematically  for  the  community,  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  leave  it  wholly  to  amateurs.  •  The  modern  decoration  implies 
architects,  designers,  and  artificers  of  its  own.  In  the  foreman  of 
an  art-blacksmith's  shop  I  found  the  other  day  one  whom  I  had 
previously  known  as  a  working  jeweller ;  he  had  simply  transferred 
his  energy  and  skill  from  gold  and  silver  to  brass  and  iron,  and  was 
laboring  with  hands  harder  than  before,  yet  no  less  cunning,  upon 
graceful  gas-fixtures  and  indoor  ornamentations  of  his  own  design- 
ing. '  It  must  be  the  same  with  women ;  they  must  undergo  profes- 
sional training  to  do  their  best.  Here  is  this  whole  continent  waiting 
to  be  made  graceful  and  beautiful  in  its  indoor  homes.  It  is  said 
by  dealers  that,  outside  of  a  few  large  cities,  there  is  absolutely  no 
arrangement  to  suppl}'^  this  demand,  —  no  one  who  can  give  to  a 
young  couple  setting  up  their  house-keeping  more  than  that  amount 
of  information  possessed  by  the  average  furniture  dealer,  which  is 
very  little.  For  want  of  this  many  a  young  pair,  as  their  wedding- 
day  approaches,  sit  down  and  ponder  helplessly  over  some  book  on 
"The  House  Beautiful,"  or  "Indoor  Decoration,"  until  their  souls 
are  filled  with  despair.  ) Where  are  they  to  find  these  charming 
portieres^  these  aesthetic  wall-papers,  these  delightful  Russian  wash- 
bowls that  are  lighter  and  prettier  and  cheaper  and  more  durable 


What  to  Say,  127 

than  any  china?  And  the  dealers  receive  unavailing  letters  from 
a  thousand  miles  away,  asking  for  the  wrong  things  or  under  the 
wrong  names,  and  ending  in  failure.     What  is  the  remedy? 

The  remedy  is  for  a  few  women  first,  and  then  a  good  many 
women,  after  training  themselves  properly,  to  take  up  decoration 
as  a  profession.  Let  any  two  bright  and  capable  girls  w^ho  have 
j^'l,^'  wearied  themselves  in  painting  water-colors  that  people  do  not 
want,  or  Christmas  cards  for  which  the  market  is  waning,  try 
another  experiment.  Let  them,  after  studying  in  the  art  schools 
of  I^ew  York  or  Boston  or  Cincinnati,  make  also  a  careful  study  of 
the  markets  and  workshops  of  those  cities,  so  far  as  they  relate  to 
decoration;  and  then  go,  armed  with  circulars,  price-lists,  plans, 
and  patterns,  to  establish  themselves  as  household  decorators  in 
some  interior  city,  where  the  wave  of  modern  improvement  has 
thus  far  come  only  as  a  matter  of  intelligent  interest,  not  of  syste- 
matic supply.  They  will  have  to  wait  awhile,  no  doubt,  to  com- 
mand public  confidence,  or  even  to  make  their  mission  understood ; 
but  they  will  not  have  to  wait  so  long  as  their  brothers  will  wait 
for  clients  or  for  patients.  They  will  need  to  be  very  practical, 
very  accurate,  very  efiicient,  and  very  patient.  The  great  dealers 
in  the  larger  cities  will  gladly  make  them  their  agents,  give  them 
letters  of  introduction,  and  pay  them  a  commission  on  sales.  With 
a  little  tact  they  can  learn  to  co-operate  with  the  local  dealers,  to 
whom  they  will  naturally  leave  the  coarser  supplies,  devoting  them- 
selves to  the  finer  touches.  If  they  succeed  at  all,  their  circle  of 
clients  or  correspondents  may  extend  through  whole  states,  and 
they  will  help  to  refine  the  life  and  thought  of  the  nation.  By  all 
means  let  us  see  women  take  up  household  decoration  as  an  edu- 
cated profession. —  T.  W.  HiGGINSON. 

Before  closing  this  chapter  let  me  say  something  about  the 
reading  of  business  letters  as  well  as  the  writing  of  them.  It  is, 
perhaps,  a  harder  duty  to  read  such  letters  with  the  necessary- 
degree  of  attention  than  to  compose  them,  for  the  author  has  his 
head  charged  with  the  subject,  and  writing  the  letter  is  a  relief  to 
him,  but  to  the  receiver  the  matter  is  new,  and  however  lucid  may 
be  the  exposition  it  always  requires  some  degree  of  real  attention 
on  his  part.  How  are  you,  being  at  a  distance,  to  get  an  indolent 
man  to  bestow  that  necessary  attention  ?     He  feels  secure  from  a 


has 

3te-  Q  ^ 


128  Composition-Rhetoric. 

personal  visit,  and  indulges  his  indolence  by  neglecting  your  con- 
cerns, even  when  they  are  also  his  own.  Long  ago  I  heard  an 
English  Archdeacon  tell  the  following  story  about  his  Bishop. 
The  prelate  was  one  of  that  numerous  class  of  men  who  loathe  the 
sight  of  a  business  letter,  and  he  had  indulged  his  indolence  in 
that  respect  to  such  a  degree  that,  little  by  little,  he  had  arrived 
at  the  fatal  stage  where  one  leaves  letters  unopened  for  days  or 
weeks.  At  one  particular  time  the  Archdeacon  was  aware  of  a 
great  arrear  of  unopened  letters,  and  impressed  his  lordship  with 
the  necessity  of  taking  some  note  of  their  contents.  Yielding  to  a 
stronger  will,  the  Bishop  began  to  read,  and  one  of  the  first  com- 
munications was  from  a  wealthy  man  who  offered  a  large  sum  for 
church  purposes  (I  think  for  building),  but  if  the  offer  was  not 
accepted  within  a  certain  lapse  of  time  he  declared  his  intention 
of  making  it  to  that  which  a  Bishop  loveth  not  —  a  dissenting 
community.  The  prelate  had  opened  the  letter  too  late,  and  he 
lost  the  money.  I  believe  that  the  Archdeacon's  vexation  at  the 
loss  was  more  than  counterbalanced  by  gratification  that  his  hie- 
rarchical superior  had  received  such  a  lesson  for  his  neglect.  Yet 
he  did  but  imitate  Napoleon,  of  whom  Emerson  says,  "■  He  directed 
Bourrienne  to  leave  all  letters  unopened  for  three  weeks,  and  then 
observed  wdth  satisfaction  how  large  a  part  of  the  correspondence 
had  disposed  of  itself  and  no  longer  required  an  answer."  This  is 
a  very  unsafe  system  to  adopt,  as  the  case  of  the  Bishop  proves. 
Things  may  "dispose  of  themselves"  in  the  wrong  way,  like  wine 
in  a  leaky  cask,  which,  instead  of  putting  itself  carefully  into  a 
sound  cask,  goes  trickling  into  the  earth.  —  Hamerton:  Human 
Intercourse. 

False  ideals  of  dignity  are  very  inimical  to  effective  bodily  exer- 
cise. A  foolish  notion  that  it  is  more  dignified  to  be  seen  in  a 
carriage  than  on  horseback  has  deprived  all  French  ecclesiastics 
of  the  use  of  the  saddle.  Their  modes  of  locomotion  are  settled 
by  a  fixed  rule;  they  may  walk  (generally  with  the  breviary  in 
their  hands,  which  they  read  whilst  walking),  and  the  poor  cure 
may  now  keep  a  small  pony  carriage.  A  bishop  must  alw^ays  ride 
in  a  close  carriage  drawn  by  a  pair  of  horses.  A  cure  may  drive 
himself ;  a  bishop  may  not  drive.  In  England  these  rules  are  not 
so  strict,  as  the  clergy  are  not  so  widely  different  from  the  laity. 


What  to  Say,  129 

The  English  clergyman  may  ride  on  horseback  and  be  active  in 
other  ways;  still  there  is  a  prejudice  even  in  England  against 
too  much  healthy  activity  in  clergymen.  Being  on  a  visit  to  a 
vicar  in  the  north  of  England,  I  found  that  he  possessed  a  com- 
plete apparatus  for  archery.  "  That  is  a  good  thing  for  you/'  I 
said;  but  he  looked  melancholy,  and  answered,  "It  would  be  if 
my  parishioners  permitted  the  use  of  it,  but  they  talked  so  much 
that  I  was  forced  to  give  up  archery.  They  considered  it  unbe- 
coming in  a  clergyman,  who  ought  to  be  attending  to  his  parish. 
Had  I  spent  the  same  time  over  a  decanter  of  port  wine  in  my 
dining-room  they  would  have  raised  no  objection."  The  same 
clergyman  was  fond  of  leaping,  but  indulged  that  passion  in 
secret  as  if  it  had  been  a  sin.  Still,  these  prejudices  are  stronger 
in  France.  I  never  saw  a  French  priest  shoot,  or  hunt,  or  row  in 
a  boat.  It  cannot  be  the  cruelty  of  shooting  and  hunting  which 
prevents  him,  as  he  is  allowed  to  fish  with  hooks;  it  is  simply 
the  activity  of  the  manlier  sports  that  excites  disapprobation.  All 
Frenchmen  who  care  for  their  dignity  avoid  velocipedes  of  all 
kinds,  which  are  used  only  by  young  men,  who  are  generally  in 
the  middle  class,  such  as  clerks  and  shopkeepers'  assistants.  In 
England,  where  the  prejudice  against  activity  is  not  so  strong, 
velocipedes  are  often  used  by  rather  elderly  gentlemen,  who  are 
not  ashamed  of  being  active.  —  Hamertojs^  :  French  and  English,  7. 

It  was  quite  three  weeks  before  I  began  to  keep  any  record  of 
impressions,  and  I  cannot  therefore  fix  the  date  at  which  I  pushed 
my  search  for  them  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Piazza  Santa  Maria 
Novella,  where  we  were  lodged.  It  is  better  to  own  up  at  once  to 
any  sin  which  one  is  likely  to  be  found  out  in,  for  then  one  gains 
at  least  the  credit  of  candor  and  courage  ;  and  I  will  confess  here 
that  I  had  come  to  Florence  with  the  intention  of  writing  about 
it.  But  I  rather  wonder  now  w^hy  I  should  have  thought  of  writ- 
ing of  the  whole  city,  when  one  piazza  in  it  was  interesting  enough 
to  make  a  book  about.  It  was  in  itself  not  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting piazzas  of  Florence  in  the  ordinary  way.  I  do  not  know 
that  anything  very  historical  ever  happened  there ;  but  that  is  by 
no  means  saying  that  there  did  not.  There  used,  under  the  early 
Medici  and  the  late  grand  dukes,  to  be  chariot-races  in  it,  the  goals 
of  which  are  the  two  obelisks  by  John  of  Bologna,  set  upon  the 


130  Oomposition-Rhetoric, 

backs  of  the  bronze  turtles,  which  the  sympathetic  observer  will 
fancy  gasping  under  their  weight  at  either  end  of  the  irregular 
space ;  and  its  wide  floor  is  still  unpaved,  so  that  it  is  a  sop  of  mud 
in  rainy  weather,  and  a  whirl  of  dust  in  dry.  At  the  end  opposite 
the  church  is  the  terminus  of  the  steam  tramway  running  to 
Prato,  and  the  small  engine  that  drew  the  trains  of  two  or  three 
horse-cars  linked  together  was  perpetually  fretting  and  snufiling 
about  the  base  of  the  obelisk  there,  as  if  that  were  a  stump,  and 
the  engine  were  a  boy's  dog  with  intolerable  conviction  of  a  wood- 
chuck  under  it.  From  time  to  time  the  conductor  blew  a  small 
horn  of  a  feeble,  reedy  note,  like  that  of  the  horns  which  children 
find  in  their  stockings  on  Christmas  morning ;  and  then  the  poor 
little  engine  hitched  itself  to  the  train,  and  with  an  air  of  hopeless 
affliction  snuffled  awaj^  toward  Prato,  and  left  the  w^oodchuck 
under  the  obelisk  to  escape.  The  impression  of  a  woodchuck  was 
confirmed  by  the  digging  around  the  obelisk,  which  a  gang  of 
workmen  kept  up  all  winter ;  they  laid  down  water-pipes,  and  then 
dug  them  up  again.  But  when  the  engine  was  gone  we  could  give 
our  minds  to  other  sights  in  the  piazza. 

One  of  these  was  the  passage  of  troops,  infantry  or  cavalry,  who 
were  always  going  to  or  from  the  great  railway  station  behind  the 
church,  and  who  entered  it  with  a  gay  blare  of  bugles,  extinguished 
midway  of  the  square,  letting  the  measured  tramp  of  feet  or  the 
irregular  clack  of  hoofs  make  itself  heard.  This  w^as  always  thrill- 
ing, and  we  could  not  get  enough  of  the  brave  spectacle.  We 
rejoiced  in  the  parade  of  Italian  military  force  with  even  more 
than  native  ardor,  for  w^e  were  not  taxed  to  pay  for  it,  and  person- 
ally the  men  were  beautiful ;  not  large  or  strong,  but  regular  and 
refined  of  face,  rank  and  file  alike,  in  that  democracy  of  good  looks 
which  one  sees  in  no  other  land.  They  marched  with  a  lounging, 
swinging  step,  under  a  heavy  burden  of  equipment,  and  with  the 
sort  of  quiet  patience  to  which  the  whole  nation  has  been  schooled 
in  its  advance  out  of  slavish  subjection  to  the  van  of  civilization. 
—  HowELLS  :  Tuscan  Cities,  4,  5. 

ff  EXERCISE  39. 

Develop  the  following  outlines  into  paragraphs  by  supplying  the 
missing  sentences :  — 


iffi^ 


What  to  Say,  131 


Kh 


The  discovery  of  the  American  continent  was  made  by  a 
native  of  Italy,  but  Ttopic-senteiice 'snowing  Spain's  interest 
^'^^^^^^^Bp^cffi^  Thus  it  came  about  [result,  devel-     .. 


The  Monroe  Doctrine  is  a  warning  to  European  powers  to  -v^j^ 
keep  their  hands  off  territory  in  North  and  South  America.^ 
In  other  words  .  .  .  [repetition]  ,  .  .-  This  is  as  if  .  .  .  f<oX|iOL. 
.  V^'c6inparison  with  some  familiar  occurrence  of  ordinary  life]  p;J(^ 
.  .  .  The  assertion  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  has  sometimes  '  fYJ. 
been  interpreted  to  mean  that  the  United  States  will  inter- 
fere whenever  misunderstandings  arise  between  European 
powers  and  the  South  American  Kepublics,  but  A  : '^  [con- 
'^^^i^st]  !  :  .  Eor  example  .  .  .  [an  instance  in  which  the 
United  States  refused  to  interfere]  .  .  . 

There  are  times  in  the  life  of  everyone  when  new  and 
strange  things  occur  with  such  rapidity  that  one  is  hardly 
able  to  catch  one's,  breath  between  the  happenings.     It  is 


\  r'    r.^^   \\J^^  ( 


though,:  ....   [analogy  to  show  suddenness  of  change] 


>^ 


To-day  one  may  be  .  .  .  \f'{He?bntrast]   .  .  .     Twenty -four  hours 
may  ::•.  .   [repetitWii^  Emphasizing  rapidity  of  events]  .  .  3^» 
It  was  so  with  .  .  .   [example  from  history]  .  .  .  when  he 
.  .  .   [particulars]   .   .  .     From   such   sudden   changes   one      . 
may   come   forth   much   stronger   in   character,   and   XUViJLJW. 

[result].  »ffoujdj^  ^ra>u  oWbiiu  \j^o>c  fcW  Uuuuly  \^<-^  ?-^^ 

During  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Westinghouse  Electric    ^^^^^ 
Manufacturing  Company  at  Pittsburgh  recently,  a  test  was 
made  of  a  new  railway  electric  motor.     This  motor  easily 
drew  several  loaded  freight  cars  at  a  rapid  rate  and  with  a 
low  supply  of  electricity,  and  the  opinion  was  general  that 
in  this  invention  there  has  been  found  an  economical  sub- 
stitute for  steam-power  on  long-distance  railways.     If  this 
should  prove   to   be   the   case  .  .  .    [results]  .  .  .     These       ^ 
changes    are    sure  to  come   in  time,  because   .'-.   .    [proofs       *^^I 
^^>*^^^hx)^ing  their  desirability]  ,  .  .     The  only  thing  that  can        "^ 
AiMdelay  the  subsft?iifeon  of  electric  for  steam  power  is  the 


iV^ 


question  of  expense  ..  .  rparticiilarsl . «  .     But  PrV  [con-;.  \, 
trasF  sjiowmg  tnat  tms^  ODjectioii  wlQ  oe  o^rcomej  .  .  . 

^^^^'ne  pfesent  situation  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  whicgh  , 
existed  when-V^V^/  [comparison  showing  that  expense  did'  ^> 
^"  not  prevent  the  adoption  o:^  "an  earliCT  invention]  ...     It 
will  be  so  with  this  latest  invention.     The  extraordinary 
demand  for  the  new  motor  will  enable  the  manufacturers  to 
furnish  it  at  rates  very  much  lower  than  now  appear  pos-    Vji 
sible;  and  we  may,  therefore,  expect  AJt .  J^^iCyl^e^mtJ ."^  ^'k\-M 


% 


How  differently  tenants  treat  rented  property  entrusted     ,  U 
;o  their  care!     One  class  seem  utterly  careless  of  appear-       ^ 
i    .     ancesOA^."^  [particulars]   .  .  .     On   the   other   hand,    some     ^ 
tenants  take  pride  in  keeping  the  property  in  repair  o.  .  *    i^ 
[other  particulal'sj'  .  .  .     Landlords  are  fortunate  in  secur- 
ing tenants  of  this  class,  but  they  do  not  expect  such  to  stay 
long,  for  such  industrious  and  careful  persons  usually  man- 
A       .  age,  after  a  time  to  ^.  .- [particular  result  of  industry].    \ 
^^^^^  Every  boy  has  soineAvliere  stored  away  in  his  mind  the^* 
memory  of  some  thrilling  personal  adventure  or  delightful 
personal   experience.      As   often   as   he   thinks   of  it  jX  -i^^^ 
V^  ^^pSSte]  .  .  .     It  is  as  if  .'  .  .   [comparison  to  bring  oiirtSr*^^^ 
Ok/ir<>^Vidness  of  the  recollection]  .  .  .     Such  was. the  experience 

which  came  to  me  ^.|jO  .  [x-)articulars,  time,  place,  circum-   /^ 
ooA  ^Ti^!^^i^1^^^^  of  the  wiiole  matter  was  ^^V*^^ 

w^^        It  is  probable  that  the  southern  states  would  not  have 
begun  the  Civil  War  had  the  southern  people  realized  the 
''^       great  wealth  and  resources  of  the  populous  North.     Had 
^  they  known  of  the  .  .  .   [particulars  specifying  resources] 

►■'^^Kis^^.  *they  would  not  so  hastily  .  .  .  ^f result]  .' .  .  Tlic 
leaders  of  the  secession  movement  doubtless  did  not  under- 
estimate the  strength  of  the  North,  though  they  did  misun- 
derstand its  temper.  But  the  plain  people  of  the  South 
who  filled  the  southern  armies  and  bore  the  heaviest  bur- 
dens of  the  conflict  IANT^^B'^^  were  misled 


What  to  Say,  133 

by  appeals  to  their  state  pride,  while  the  real  facts  as  to  the 
power  and  spirit  of  the  Korth  were  concealed  from  them. 
That  thej  maintained  a  brave  and  stubborn  contest  so  long 
was  due'-}'.  .  [cause  and  cfrc/ct]  •  .  .  ;  their  uniform  suc- 
cess at  the  beginning  of.  the  war  was  nuiiiily  owiu^^  ,  _^  . 
|>J*^a&^e  and  effect]  ■.  ^?^*C)iice  the  Xorth  was'^fully  arousVa 
^^1^,^^  .•^result]  .  .  .     They  were  clearly  over-matclied. 


EXERCISE   40. 


a  I ' 


Develop  the  following  topic-sentences,  using  at  least  two  of  the 
methods  of  development  described  in  the  foregoing  lessons  :  — 

/I.    The  dangers  of  athletic  contests  are  over-estimated. 

2.  Longfellow  and  Whittier  were  different  types  of  men. 

3.  Elvers  seem  to  have  lost  much  of  their  importance 
with  the  geographers. 

'   4.    There  is  much  to  be  learned  from  a  visit  to  a  machine 
shop. 

5.  Burr's  whole  career  was  marked  by  insincerity. 

6.  At  the  dead  of  night,  every  sound  seems  to  be  full  of 
a  fearful  significance. 

7.  The  winter  at  Valley  Porge  was  full  of  suft'ering  for 
Washington's  army. 

8.  Fishing  excursions,  I  have   noticed,   are  seldom  re- 
peated by  the  same  people  during  the  same  season. 

9.  American  states  have  not  yet  learned  how  to  deal 
effectively  with  the  tramp. 

10.  Rapid    street-railway   transit    is    making    healthier 
homes  possible  for  laboring  men. 

11.  There  are  very  few  of  the  old  proverbs  that  prove 
true  in  all  cases. 

12.  There  is  a  vital  distinction  between  "liberty"  and 
"  doing  what  you  please." 

13.  Loss  of  hearing  deprives  one  of  more  pleasures  than 
loss  of  sight. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

HOVv^   TO    SAY   IT. 

*     *  LESSON  21. 

Short  Sentences  and  Their  Uses. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  seen  that  a  writer  may 
build  up  a  paragraph  from  a  topic-sentence  by  adding  other 
sentences  containing  one  or  more  of  the  following :  repeti- 
tions of  some  of  the  ideas  of  the  topic-sentence,  particulars 
and  details,  specific  instances  or  examples,  comparisons  and 
analogies,  statements  telling  what  a  thing  is  not  or  is  not 
like,  contrasts,  causes  or  effects,  and  proofs.  Having  built 
up  the  paragraph  from  the  topic-sentence  by  one  or  more  of 
these  methods,  the  question  still  remains  for  the  writer 
whether  he  has  properly  divided  his  thought  into  sentences. 

One  important  part  of  this  question  is  concerned  with  the 
length  of  the  different  sentences.  Shall  the  sentences  be  all 
of  about  the  same  length,  or  of  different  lengths  ?  and  why  ? 
Are  there  special  uses  for  long  sentences  in  a  paragraph 
and  special  uses  for  short  sentences  ?  We  will  answer  the 
last  question  first. 

Observe  in  the  following  paragraphs  how  sharply  the 
attention  is  arrested  by  the  short  sentences  (here  printed  in 
italics).  It  is  because  short  sentences  attract  attention  that 
the  topic-sentence  of  a  paragraph  is  often  found  expressed 
in  a  short  sentence.     (See  Lesson  11.) 

134 


Eow  to  Say  IL  135 

Age  brings  other  obvious  changes  besides  the  loss  of  active 
power.  The  sensibilities  are  less  keen,  the  intelligence  is  less 
lively,  as  we  might  expect  under  the  influence  of  that  narcotic 
w^hich  Nature  administers.  But  there  is  another  effect  of  her 
"black  drop"  which  is  not  so  commonly  recognized.  Old  age  is 
like  an  opiu7n-dream.  Nothing  seems  real  except  what  is  unreal.  1 
am  sure  that  the  pictures  painted  by  the  imagination,  —  the  faded 
frescoes  on  the  walls  of  memory,  —  come  out  in  clearer  and  brighter 
colors  than  belonged  to  them  many  years  earlier.  Nature  has  her 
special  favors  for  her  children  of  every  age,  and  this  is  one  which 
she  reserves  for  our  second  childhood.  —  O.  W.  Holmes  :  Over  the 
Teacups,  39. 

The  distinguishing  part  of  our  constitution  is  its  liberty.  To  pre- 
serve that  liberty  inviolate,  seems  the  particular  duty  and  proper 
trust  of  a  member  of  the  house  of  commons.  But  the  liberty,  the 
only  liberty  I  mean,  is  a  liberty  connected  with  order;  that  not 
only  exists  along  with  order  and  virtue,  but  which  cannot  exist  at 
all  without  them.  It  inheres  in  good  and  steady  government,  as 
in  its  substance  and  vital  principle. — Burke:  Speech  on  Ameri- 
can Taxation. 

Observe  in  the  following  paragraphs  that  the  short  sen- 
tences (here  in  italics)  mark  a  transition  from  one  part  of 
the  subject  to  another :  — 

To  write  history  respectably  —  that  is,  to  abbreviate  despatches, 
and  make  extracts  from  speeches,  to  intersperse  in  due  proportion 
epithets  of  praise  and  abhorrence,  to  draw  up  antithetical  char- 
acters of  great  men,  setting  forth  how  many  contradictory  virtues 
and  vices  they  united,  and  abounding  in  withs  and  withouts  —  all 
this  is  very  easy.  But  to  be  a  really  great  historian  is  perhaps 
the  rarest  of  intellectual  distinctions.  Many  scientific  works  are, 
in  their  kind,  absolutely  perfect.  There  are  poems  which  we 
should  be  inclined  to  designate  as  faultless,  or  as  disfigured  only 
by  blemishes  which  pass  unnoticed  in  the  general  blaze  of  excel- 
lence. There  are  speeches,  some  speeches  of  Demosthenes  particu- 
larly, in  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  alter  a  word  without 
altering  it  for  the  worse.     But  we  are  acquainted  with  no  history 


136  Composition-Rhetoric, 

which  approaches  to  our  notion  of  what  a  history  ought  to  be  — 
with  no  history  which  does  not  widely  depart,  either  on  the  right 
hand  or  on  the  left,  from  the  exact  line. 

Tlie  cause  may  easily  he  assigned.  This  province  of  literature 
is  a  debatable  land.  It  lies  on  the  confines  of  two  distinct  terri- 
tories. It  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  two  hostile  powers;  and 
like  other  districts  similarly  situated,  it  is  ill-defined,  ill-cultivated, 
and  ill-regulated.  Instead  of  being  equally  shared  between  its 
two  rulers,  the  Reason  and  the  Imagination,  it  falls  alternately 
under  the  sole  and  absolute  dominion  of  each.  It  is  sometimes 
fiction.     It  is  sometimes  theory. 

History,  it  has  heen  said,  is  philosophy  teaching  by  examples.  Un- 
happily, what  the  philosophy  gains  in  soundness  and  depth  the 
examples  generally  lose  in  vividness.  A  perfect  historian  must 
possess  an  imagination  sufficiently  powerful  to  make  his  narrative 
affecting  and  picturesque.  Yet  he  must  control  it  so  absolutely 
as  to  content  himself  with  the  materials  which  he  finds,  and  to 
refrain  from  supplying  deficiencies  by  additions  of  his  own.  He 
must  be  a  profound  and  ingenious  reasoner.  Yet  he  must  possess 
sufficient  self-command  to  abstain  from  casting  his  facts  in  the 
mould  of  his  hypothesis.  Those  who  can  justly  estimate  these 
almost  insuperable  difficulties  will  not  think  it  strange  that  every 
writer  should  have  failed,  either  in  the  narrative  or  in  the  specu- 
lative department  of  history.  —  M AC aulay  :  Essay  on  History. 

I  am  not  going  to  write  the  history  of  La  Pucelle :  to  do  this, 
or  even  circumstantially  to  report  the  history  of  her  persecution 
and  bitter  death,  of  her  struggle  with  false  witnesses  and  with 
ensnaring  judges,  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  before  us  all  the 
documents,  and  therefore  the  collection  only  now  forthcoming  in 
Paris.  But  my  purpose  is  narrower.  There  have  been  great  thinkers, 
disdaining  the  careless  judgments  of  contemporaries,  who  have 
thrown  themselves  boldly  on  the  judgment  of  a  far  posterity,  that 
should  have  had  time  to  review,  to  ponder,  to  compare.  There 
have  been  great  actors  on  the  stage  of  tragic  humanity  that  might, 
with  the  same  depth  of  confidence,  have  appealed  from  the  levity 
of  compatriot  friends  —  too  heartless  for  the  sublime  interest  of 
their  story,  and  too  impatient  for  the  labor  of  sifting  its  perplexi- 
ties—  to  the  magnanimity  and  justice  of  enemies.     To  this  class 


How  to  Say  It.  137 

belongs  the  Maid  of  Arc.  The  ancient  Romans  were  too  faithful 
to  the  ideal  of  grandeur  in  themselves  not  to  relent,  after  a  gen- 
eration or  two,  before  the  grandeur  of  Hannibal.  Mithridates,  a 
more  doubtful  person,  yet  merely  for  the  magic  perseverance  of 
his  indomitable  malice,  w^on  from  the  same  Romans  the  only  real 
honor  that  ever  he  received  on  earth.  And  we  English  have  ever 
shown  the  same  homage  to  stubborn  enmity.  To  work  vmflinchingly 
for  the  ruin  of  England  ;  to  say  through  life,  by  word  and  by  deed, 
Delenda  est  Anglia  Victrix  !  —  that  one  purpose  of  malice,  faithfully 
pursued,  has  quartered  some  people  upon  our  national  funds  of 
homage  as  by  a  perpetual  annuity  .  .  .  On  the  same  principle, 
La  Pucelle  d'Orleans,  the  victorious  enemy  of  England,  has  been 
destined  to  receive  her  deepest  commemoration  from  the  mag- 
nanimous justice  of  Englishmen.  —  De  Quincey:  Joan  of  Arc. 

In  the  following  paragraph,  note  that  the  short  sentences 
(here  in  italics)  announce  ideas  that  are  developed  or  ex- 
plained in  the  longer  sentences  which  follow :  — 

We  will  leave  to  a  separate  chapter  our  sketch  of  the  literary 
society  of  Edinburgh  as  then  flourishing.  The  attitude  of  Burns  in 
respect  to  it  is  very  curious  and  interesting.  Here  was  a  young  peasant, 
without  education,  without  knowledge  of  the  world,  full  of  Scotch 
reserve  and  that  farouche  pride  of  the  rustic  which  reaches  the 
height  of  a  passion.  The  pride  which  is  supposed  to  accompany 
blue  blood  and  great  descent  has  justifications  outside  of  the  indi- 
vidual possessed  by  it ;  and  in  most  cases  it  imposes  a  certain  re- 
straint upon  that  individual,  and  demands  of  him  some  qualities, 
or  at  least  some  graces,  in  accordance  with  it.  But  the  pride  of  a 
peasant  is  wildly  personal,  and  independent  of  every  consideration. 
The  more  he  is  conscious  of  his  deficiencies  even,  the  more  w^ildly 
bent  he  will  be  upon  attentions  and  observances  due  in  society  only 
to  high  social  qualifications.  From  the  moment  when  Burns  steps 
into  the  light  in  Edinburgh,  this  mixture  of  shyness,  inordinate  self- 
opinion,  and  an  almost  polemical  determination  to  prove  himself 
the  equal,  if  not  the  superior  of  everybody  round  hinij  appears  both 
in  his  behavior  and  in  the  private  records  of  his  opinions.  It  was 
no  doubt  a  very  difficult  position.  Uncultured,  unaccustomed  to  the 
ways  of  society,  knowing  nobody,  feeling  himself  a  kind  of  vague 


138  Composition-Rhetoric, 

representative,  not  only  of  genius  but  of  man,  among  a  curious 
crowd  of  superiors,  all  more  or  less  disposed  to  infringe  these 
rights,  to  patronize  him,  and  lessen  his  own  sense  of  dignity,  he 
appears  on  the  defensive,  always  watchful  lest  some  affront  should 
be  intended ;  beguiled  indeed,  into  better  moods  in  the  warmth  of 
social  intercourse,  but  ever  ready  to  take  fire  again,  and  to  resent 
not  only  imaginary  slights  to  himself,  but  even  the  civilities  offered 
to  others  whom  he  thinks  less  worthy.  —  Oliphant  :  Literary  His- 
tory of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  I,  112,  113. 

]!^ote,  in  the  following  paragraphs,  that  the  short  sentences 
(printed  in  italics)  are  summaries  of  the  thought  expressed 
at  greater  length  in  preceding  sentences.  The  short  sen- 
tences here  put  the  whole  truth  in  a  brief  and  striking 
form,  abrupt,  emphatic,  and  easily  remembered.  It  is  be- 
cause a  short  sentence,  when  used  in  connection  with  longer 
sentences,  is  emphatic  by  contrast,  that  writers  often  put  the 
most  important  thought  of  a  paragraph  into  a  short  sen- 
tence, and  when  they  repeat  for  emphasis,  repeat  in  a  short 
sentence.  A  brief  quotation,  an  epigram,  or  a  proverb  often 
serves  admirably  the  purpose  of  a  summary. 

Sir,  whilst  we  held  this  happy  course,  we  drew  more  from  the 
Colonies  than  all  the  impotent  violence  of  despotism  ever  could 
extort  from  them.  We  did  this  abundantly  in  the  last  war.  It  has 
never  been  once  denied ;  and  what  reason  have  we  to  imagine  that 
the  Colonies  would  not  have  proceeded  in  supplying  government 
as  liberally,  if  you  had  not  stepped  in  and  hindered  them  from 
contributing,  by  interrupting  the  channel  in  which  their  liberality 
flowed  with  so  strong  a  course ;  by  attempting  to  take,  instead  of 
being  satisfied  to  receive?  Sir  William  Temple  says  that  Holland 
has  loaded  itself  with  ten  times  the  impositions,  which  it  revolted 
from  Spain,  rather  than  submit  to.  He  says  true.  Tyranny  is 
a  poor  provider.  It  knows  neither  how  to  accumulate,  nor  how  to 
extract.  —  Burke:  American  Taxation. 

Samuel  Adams  was  the  true  king  in  Boston  at  that  time.  He 
was  a  man  in  middle  life,  of  cultivated  mind  and  stainless  repu- 
tation—  a  powerful  speaker  and  writer — a  man  in  whose  sagacity 


How  to  Say  It.  139 

and  moderation  all  men  trusted.  He  resembled  the  old  Puritans 
in  his  stern  love  of  liberty  —  his  reverence  for  the  Sabbath,  his 
sincere,  if  somewhat  formal,  observance  of  all  religious  ordinances. 
He  was  among  the  first  to  see  that  there  was  no  resting-place  in 
this  struggle  short  of  independence.  "  We  are  free,'*  he  said, 
'^  and  want  no  king.''  The  men  of  Boston  felt  the  power  of  his 
resolute  spu'it,  and  manfully  followed  where  Samuel  Adams  led.  — 
Mackenzie:  America. 

On  the  day  of  his  death,  this  simple  Western  attorney,  who 
according  to  one  party  was  a  vulgar  joker,  and  whom  the  doctri- 
naires among  his  own  supporters  accused  of  wanting  every  element 
of  statesmanship,  was  the  most  absolute  ruler  in  Christendom,  and 
this  solely  by  the  hold  his  good-humored  sagacity  had  laid  on  the 
hearts  and  understandings  of  his  countrymen.  Nor  was  this  all, 
for  it  appeared  that  he  had  drawn  the  great  majority,  not  only 
of  his  fellow-citizens,  but  of  mankind  also,  to  his  side.  So  strong 
and  so  persuasive  is  honest  manliness  without  a  single  quality  of 
romance  or  unreal  sentiment  to  help  it !  A  civilian  during  times 
of  the  most  captivating  military  achievement,  awkward,  with  no 
skill  in  the  lower  technicalities  of  manners,  he  left  behind  him  a 
fame  beyond  tjiat  of  any  conqueror,  the  memory  of  a  grace  higher 
than  that  of  outward  person,  and  of  a  gentlemanliness  deeper  than 
mere  breeding.  Never  before  that  startled  April  morning  did  such 
multitudes  of  men  shed  tears  for  the  death  of  one  they  had  never 
seen,  as  if  with  him  a  friendly  presence  had  been  taken  away  from 
their  lives,  leaving  them  colder  and  darker.  Never  was  funeral 
panegyric  so  eloquent  as  the  silent  look  of  sympathy  which  stran- 
gers exchanged  when  they  met  on  that  day.  Their  common  manhood 
had  lost  a  kinsman.  —  Lowell  :  Abraham  Lincoln. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  the  short  sentences  secure 
directness  and  vigor  of  statement.  The  reader  feels  that 
his  attention  is  wanted  at  every  step,  and  that  every  step  is 
important.  Each  detail  gains  distinction  by  being  stated 
in  a  separate  sentence. 

Meantime  the  guilty  soul  cannot  keep  its  own  secret.  It  is  false 
to  itself ;  or  rather  it  feels  an  irresistible  impulse  of  conscience  to 


140  Composition-Rhetoric, 

be  true  to  itself.  It  labors  under  its  guilty  possession,  and  knows 
not  what  to  do  with  it.  The  human  heart  was  not  made  for  the 
residence  of  such  an  inhabitant.  It  finds  itself  preyed  on  by  a 
torment  which  it  dares  not  acknowledge  to  God  or  man.  A 
vulture  is  devouring  it,  and  it  can  ask  no  sympathy  or  assistance, 
either  from  heaven  or  earth.  The  secret  which  the  murderer  pos- 
sesses soon  comes  to  possess  him;  and,  like  the  evil  spirits  of 
which  we  read,  it  overcomes  him,  and  leads  him  whithersoever  it 
will.  He  feels  it  beating  at  his  heart,  rising  to  his  throat,  and 
demanding  disclosure.  He  thinks  the  whole  world  sees  it  in  his 
face,  reads  it  in  his  eyes,  and  almost  hears  its  workings  in  the  very 
silence  of  his  thoughts.  It  has  become  his  master.  It  betrays  his 
discretion,  it  breaks  down  his  courage,  it  conquers  his  prudence. 
When  suspicions  from  without  begin  to  embarrass  him,  and  the 
net  of  circumstances  to  entangle  him,  the  fatal  secret  struggles 
with  still  greater  violence  to  burst  forth.  It  must  be  confessed,  it 
will  be  confessed;  there  is  no  refuge  from  confession  but  suicide, 
and  suicide  is  confession.  —  Webster  :  Murder  of  White. 

Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought  forth  upon 
this  continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty,  and  dedicated  to 
the  proposition  that  all  men  are  created  equal.  Now  we  are 
engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing  whether  that  nation,  or  any 
nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated,  can  long  endure.  We  are 
met  on  a  great  battle-field  of  that  war.  We  have  come  to  dedicate 
a  portion  of  that  field  as  a  final  resting-place  for  those  who  here 
gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It  is  altogether  fitting 
and  proper  that  we  should  do  this ;  but  in  a  larger  sense  we  can- 
not dedicate,  we  cannot  consecrate,  we  cannot  hallow  this  ground. 
The  brave  men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled  here,  have  conse- 
crated it  far  above  our  power  to  add  or  detract.  The  world  will 
little  note,  nor  long  remember,  what  we  say  here,  but  it  can  never 
forget  what  they  did  here.  It  is  for  us  —  the  living  —  rather  to  be 
dedicated  here  to  the  unfinished  work  which  they  who  fought  here 
have  thus  far  so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here 
dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us,  that  from  these 
honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for  which 
they  gave  the  last  full  measure .  of  devotion ;  that  we  here  highly 
resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain;   that  this 


Eow  to  Say  It.  141 

nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom,  and  that 
government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people,  shall 
not  perish  from  the  earth.  —  Lincoln  :  Gettysburg  Address, 

In  the  following  paragraphs,  observe  that  the  succession 
of  short  sentences  produces  the  effect  of  hurry,  gives  a 
quickness  of  movement  needed  by  the  thought  itself:  — 

Amyas  leaped  into  the  mizzen  rigging,  and  looked  through  the 
smoke.  Dead  men  he  could  descry  through  the  blinding  veil, 
rolled  in  heaps,  laid  flat ;  dead  men  and  dying :  but  no  man  upon 
his  feet.  The  last  volley  had  swept  the  deck  clear ;  one  by  one 
had  dropped  below  to  escape  that  fiery  shower :  and  alone  at  the 
helm,  grinding  his  teeth  with  rage,  his  raustachios  curling  up  to 
his  very  eyes,  stood  the  Spanish  captain. 

N'ow  was  the  moment  for  a  counter-stroke.  Amyas  shouted  for 
the  boarders,  and  in  two  minutes  more  he  was  over  the  side,  and 
clutching  at  the  Spaniard's  mizzen  rigging. 

What  was  this?  The  distance  between  him  and  the  enemy's 
\3ide  was  widening.  Was  she  sheering  off?  Yes  —  and  rising  too, 
growing  bodily  higher  every  moment,  as  if  by  magic.  Amyas 
looked  up  in  astonishment  and  saw  what  it  was.  The  Spaniard 
was  heeling  fast  over  to  leeward  away  from  him.  Her  masts  were 
all  sloping  forward,  swifter  and  swifter  —  the  end  was  come,  then  ! 

^'Back!  in  God's  name,  back,  men!  She  is  sinking  by  the 
liead ! "  And  with  much  ado  some  were  dragged  back,  some 
leaped  back  —  all  but  old  Michael  Heard. 

With  hair  and  beard  floating  in  the  wind,  the  bronzed  naked 
figure,  like  some  weird  old  Indian  fakir,  still  clim^  cd  on  stead- 
fastly up  the  mizzen-chains  of  the  Spaniard,  hatchet  in  hand. 

"  Come  back,  Michael !  Leap  while  you  may  !  "  shouted  a  dozen 
voices.     Michael  turned  — 

"  And  what  should  I  come  back  for,  then,  to  go  heme  where  no 
one  knoweth  me?  I'll  die  like  an  Englishman  this  day,  or  I'll 
know  the  reason  why ! "  and  turning,  he  sprang  in  over  the  bul- 
warks, as  the  huge  ship  rolled  up  more  and  more,  like  a  dying 
whale,  exposing  all  her  long  black  hulk  almost  down  to  her  keel ; 
and  one  of  her  lower-deck  guns,  as  if  in  defiance,  exploded  upright 
into  the  air,  hurling  the  ball  to  the  very  heavens. 


142  Composition-Rhetoric, 

In  an  instant  it  was  answered  from  the  Rose  by  a  column  of 
smoke,  and  the  eighteen-pound  ball  crashed  through  the  bottom 
of  the  defenceless  Spaniard. 

"  Who  fired  ?     Shame  to  fire  on  a  sinking  ship  !  " 

"Gunner  Yeo,  sir,"  shouted  a  voice  up  from  the  main-deck. 
"  He's  like  a  madman  down  here." 

"  Tell  him  if  he  fires  again,  I'll  put  him  in  irons,  if  he  were  my 
own  brother.  Cut  away  the  grapples  aloft,  men.  Don't  you  see 
how  she  drags  us  over  ?     Cut  away,  or  we  shall  sink  with  her." 

They  cut  away,  and  the  Rose,  released  from  the  strain,  shook 
her  feathers  on  the  wave-crest  like  a  freed  sea-gull,  while  all  men 
held  their  breaths. 

Suddenly  the  glorious  creature  righted  herself,  and  rose  again, 
as  if  in  noble  shame,  for  one  last  struggle  with  her  doom.  Her 
bows  were  deep  in  the  water,  but  her  after-deck  still  dry.  Righted : 
but  only  for  a  moment,  long  enough  to  let  her  crew  come  pouring 
wildly  up  on  deck,  with  cries  and  prayers,  and  rush  aft  to  the 
poop,  where,  under  the  flag  of  Spain,  stood  the  tall  captain,  his 
left  hand  on  the  standard-staff,  his  sword  pointed  in  his  right. 

"  Back,  men ! "  they  heard  him  cry,  "  and  die  like  valiant  mariners." 

Some  of  them  ran  to  the  bulwarks,  and  shouted  "  Mercy !  We 
surrender  !  "  and  the  English  broke  into  a  cheer,  and  called  to  them 
to  run  her  alongside.  —  Kingsley  :  Westward  Ho  ! 

In  the  paragraphs  just  preceding,  the  short  sentences 
with  their  quick  and  hurried  effect  correspond  very  well  to 
the  character  of  the  thought  or  the  action  portrayed.  When 
the  thought  does  not  itself  require  this  effect  of  hurry,  it  is 
a  mistake  to  use  a  succession  of  short  sentences.  In  the 
following  there  is  a  broken,  scrappy,  and  jerky  effect  which 
the  thought  does  not  call  for :  — 

At  an  unknown  hour  he  was  aroused  by  a  creaking  of  boards. 
Lifting  himself  upon  his  elbow,  he  saw  a  sergeant  prowling  among 
the  sleeping  forms.  The  sergeant  carried  a  candle  in  an  old  brass 
candlestick.  He  w^ould  have  resembled  some  old  farmer  on  an 
unusual  midnight  tour  if  it  were  not  for  the  significance  of  his 
gleaming  buttons  and  striped  sleeves.  —  Stephen  Crane  :  The  Lit- 
tle Regiment 


How  to  Say  It,  143 

The  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  delayed  only  for  a  little  the  fast- 
coming  crisis.  A  new  ministry  was  formed,  with  the  Earl  of 
Chatham  at  its  head.  But  soon  the  great  Earl  lay  sick  and  help- 
less, and  the  burden  of  government  rested  on  incapable  shoulders. 
Charles  Townshend,  a  clever,  captivating,  but  most  indiscreet 
man,  became  the  virtual  Prime  Minister.  The  feeling  in  the  pub- 
lic mind  had  now  become  more  unfavorable  to  America.  Town- 
shend proposed  to  levy  a  variety  of  taxes  from  the  Americans. 
The  most  famous  of  his  taxes  was  one  of  threepence  per  pound  on 
tea.     All  his  proposals  became  law. 

This  time  the  more  thoughtful  Americans  began  to  despair  of 
justice.  The  boldest  scarcely  ventured  yet  to  suggest  revolt  against 
England,  so  powerful  and  so  loved.  But  the  grand  final  refuge 
of  independence  w^as  silently  brooded  over  by  many.  The  mob 
fell  back  on  their  customary  solution.  Great  riots  occurred.  To 
quell  these  disorders  English  troops  encamped  on  Boston  Common. 
The  town  swarmed  with  red-coated  men,  every  one  of  whom  was  a 
humiliation.  Their  drums  beat  on  Sunday,  and  troubled  the  or- 
derly men  of  Boston,  even  in  church.  At  intervals  fresh  transports 
dropped  in,  bearing  additional  soldiers,  till  a  great  force  occupied 
the  town.  The  galled  citizens  could  ill  brook  to  be  thus  bridled. 
The  ministers  prayed  to  Heaven  for  deliverance  from  the  presence 
of  the  soldiers.  The  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  called  vehe- 
mently on  the  Governor  to  remove  them.  The  Governor  had  no 
powers  in  that  matter.  He  called  upon  the  court  to  make  suitable 
provision  for  the  King's  troops,  —  a  request  which  it  gave  the  court 
infinite  pleasure  to  refuse.  —  Mackenzie:  America. 

Sometimes  a  series  of  short  sentences  will  result  in  a  lack 
of  clearness  in  the  paragraph,  as  a  whole.  Sentences  are 
not  necessarily  clear  in  meaning  because  they  are  short. 
Longer  sentences  of  explanation  are  needed  for  a  difficult 
thought.  In  the  following  paragraphs  the  thought  remains 
obscure  in  spite  of  the  succession  of  short  sentences.  In 
the  second  paragraph  the  short  statements  separated  by 
semicolons  are  really  to  be  classed  as  short  sentences. 

Many  facts  concur  to  show  that  we  must  look  deeper  for  our  sal- 
vation than  to  steam,  photographs,  balloons,  or  astronomy.    These 


144  Composition-Rhetoric . 

tools  have  some  questionable  properties.  They  are  reagents.  Ma- 
chinery is  aggressive.  The  weaver  becomes  a  web,  the  machinist 
a  machine.  If  you  do  not  use  the  tools,  they  use  you.  All  tools 
are  in  one  sense  edge-tools,  and  dangerous.  A  man  builds  a  fine 
house ;  and  now  he  has  a  master  and  a  task  for  life :  he  is  to  fur- 
nish, watch,  show  it,  and  keep  it  in  repair,  the  rest  of  his  days. 
A  man  has  a  reputation,  and  is  no  longer  free,  but  must  respect 
that.  A  man  makes  a  picture  or  a  book,  and,  if  it  succeeds,  'tis 
often  the  worse  for  him.  I  saw  a  brave  man  the  other  day,  hith- 
erto as  free  as  the  hawk  or  the  fox  of  the  wilderness,  constructing 
his  cabinet  of  drawers  for  shells,  eggs,  minerals,  and  mounted 
birds.  It  was  easy  to  see  that  he  was  amusing  himself  with  mak- 
ing pretty  links  for  his  own  limbs.  —  Emerson  :   Works  and  Days. 

We  are  just  so  frivolous  and  sceptical.  Men  hold  themselves 
cheap  and  vile  ;  and  yet  a  man  is  a  fagot  of  thunderbolts.  All 
the  elements  pour  through  his  system ;  he  is  the  flood  of  the  flood, 
and  fire  of  the  fire ;  he  feels  the  antipodes  and  the  pole,  as  drops 
of  his  blood :  they  are  the  extension  of  his  personality.  His  du- 
ties are  measured  by  that  instrument  he  is ;  and  a  right  and  per- 
fect man  would  be  felt  to  the  centre  of  the  Coper nican  system. 
'Tis  curious  that  we  only  believe  as  deep  as  we  live.  We  do  not 
think  heroes  can  exert  any  more  awful  power  than  that  surface- 
play  which  amuses  us.  A  deep  man  believes  in  miracles,  waits  for 
them,  believes  in  magic,  believes  that  the  orator  will  decompose 
his  adversary;  believes  that  the  evil  eye  can  wither;  that  the 
heart's  blessing  can  heal ;  that  love  can  exalt  talent ;  can  overcome 
all  odds.  From  a  great  heart  secret  magnetisms  flow  incessantly 
to  draw  great  events.  But  we  prize  very  humble  utilities,  a  pru- 
dent husband,  a  good  son,  a  voter,  a  citizen,  and  deprecate  any 
romance  of  character;  and  perhaps  reckon  only  his  money  value, 
—  his  intellect,  his  affection,  as  a  sort  of  bill  of  exchange,  easily 
convertible  into  fine  chambers,  pictures,  music,  and  wine.  — 
Emerson:  Essay  on  Beauty. 

The  short  sentence,  used  in  connection  with  longer  sentences, 
arrests  the  attention  sharply,  and  hence  is  useful  for  marking  a 
transition,  for  announcing  an  idea  to  he  explained  further,  and  for 
summarizing  the  thought  in  abrupt,  emphatic  form.     A  succession 


^ 


rjjv^ 


How  to  Say  It,  145 

of  short  sentences  may  be  used  to  indicate  rapidity  of  movement,  if 
fclie  thought  requires  this.  Short  sentences  impart  directness  and 
vigor  to  thought. 

EXERCISE  41. 

Account  for  the  use  of  the  short  sentences  of  the  para- 
graphs quoted  in  Lessons  12  to  20. 

EXERCISE  42. 

Convert  the  long  topic-sentence  of  the  following  para- 
graphs into  a  short  sentence  :  —  »    .         -^  ^. 

V    A       Kepresentative  Barrett  has  introSucea  hito  jhe  House  a  joint 
^e^fljfnno^  ameiidrfient' to  the  Constitution  to  the 

effect  that  Congress  may  have  power  to  limit  uniformly  the  hours 
of  labor  in  manufactories  of  textile  fabrics  and  other  industries. 
This  is  aimed  at  the  supposed  advantage  which  the  South,  with 
its  long  hour  system,  has  over  I^ew  England  manufacturers ;  but 
it  would  not,  however,  prevent  the  eventual  transference  of  the 
cotton  industry  to  the  former  section.  It  is  a  fair  question  whether 
under  the  '' implied  powers"  doctrine  developed  by  Hamilton, 
Congress  has  not  already  the  power  to  legislate  on  this  question 
without  any  amendment.  The  main  point  is  to  get  the  legislation. 
The  short  hour  movement  is  steadily  progressing,  and  as  the  South 
develops  it  will  make  itself  manifest  there.  But  there  is  not  much 
hope  that  Congress  can  be  brought  to  act  upon  the  subject  until  it 
takes  the  form  of  a  national  agitation.      ^  ,  ^  v*-*^. " 

yV.  Ill  order  to, remove  a  not  uiiconimon  but  erroneous  impression 
trraffe^tte  Alaska  boundary  line  is  now,  and  kas  been  for  some  time, 
in  a  state  of  adjudication,  it  may  be  well  to  say  that  thus  far  noth- 
ing has  been  done  except  to  execute  such  surveys  as  have  been 
thought  desirable  and  necessary  for  the  construction  of  maps,  by 
which  the  whole  subject  could  be  properly  presented  to  a  joint 
boundary-line  commission,  whenever  such  should  be  appointed, 
and  on  which  the  location  of  the  line  could  be  definitely  laid  down 
if  a  mutual  agreement  should  be  reached.     Such  a  survey  was  first 

{\        t^Yr>.Vi       tsJi       «>%  A  t  .  ■  \   X  /T  Wit    n^M 


146  OompositioU'Rhetoric, 

brought  to  the  attention  of  Congress  in  a  message  of  President 
Grant  in  1872.  It  was  not  until  1889,  however,  that  the  work  was 
begun  by  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  which  sent 
two  parties  to  the  valley  of  the  Yukon,  in  the  vast  interior  of  the 
territory,  with  instructions  to  establish  camps,  one  on  that  river, 
and  the  other  on  its  branch,  the  Porcupine,  both  to  be  as  near  to 
the  one  hundred  and  forty-first  meridian  as  possible.  These 
parties  were  to  carry  on  a  series  of  astronomical  observations  for 
the  purpose  of  determining  the  location  of  the  meridian,  to  execute 
such  triangulation  and  topographical  surveys  as  were  necessary  for 
its  identification,  and  to  establish  permanent  monuments  as  nearly 
as  might  be  upon  the  meridian  line.       ' 

The  mass  df  societyQook  with  eiVvy  upon  the  epicure,  who,  day 
by  day,  for  four  hours  of  luxurious  eating,  suffers  twenty  hours  of 
sharp  aching ;  who  pays  a  full  price  for  a  hot  supper,  and  is  so 
pleased  with  the  bargain,  that  he  throws  in  a  sleepless  and  tem- 
pestuous night  as  a  gratuity.  English  factory  children  have  re- 
ceived the  commiseration  of  the  world,  because  they  were  scourged 
to  work  eighteen  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four ;  but  there  is  many 
a  theoretic  republican  who  is  a  harsher  Pharaoh  to  his  stomach 
than  this;  —  who  allows  it  no  more  resting-time  than  he  does  his 
■watch  ;  who  gives  it  no  Sunday,  no  holiday,  no  vacation  in  any 
sense.  Our  pious  ancestors  enacted  a  law"  that  suicides  should  be 
buried  where  four  roads  meet,  and  that  a  cart-load  of  stones  should 
be  thrown  upon  the  body.  Yet  when  gentlemen  or  ladies  commit 
suicide,  not  by  cord  or  steel,  but  by  turtle-soup  or  lobster-salad, 
they  may  be  buried  in  consecrated  ground,  and  under  the  auspices 
of  the  church,  and  the  public  are  not  ashamed  to  read  an  epitaph 
upon  their  tombstones  false  enough  to  make  the  marble  blush. 
Were  the  barbarous  old  law  now  in  force  that  punished  the  body 
of  the  suicide  for  the  offence  which  his  soul  had  committed,  we 
should  find  many  a  cemetery  at  the  cross-roads. 


^r^>^. 


EXERCISE  43. 

Convert  the  •material  of  each  of  the  following  long- 
sentence  paragraphs  into  a  paragraph  of  shorter  sentences 
of  different  lengths :  — 


^         Rojv  to  Say  It.  147 

The  United  States   Senate  m^^  be  looked   upon^a^  the  best  j^    • 

^^-^^  'trainihg'-sdiool  in  skit'^sinaiisliip  wo  ]i;iAh  liad, ---not,'  of  coarse,  so '^'  '  ^"^ 

"cdnspicuouslj  in  administrative  funclion,  Ixib  in  the  consideration       ^  y 

^^^'^^^^b^^reat  "T^.tional  problems;   and  if   nvc   look  tl^B?  li  man   o^*^^^^ 


'^^'^^^^b^ -^req^t  Thi.^Onal  problems 

I^CTM^^ntiiltio'ti^  Experience, 'of' prominence  in  the  conduct  of  business,  a 
representative  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  in  the  prime  of  mature 
life,  we  shall  find  bim  iivthe  Senator  from  Iowa,  William  Boyd 
•^j^^-^llison .     It  is %fei'tn^?dnl6%6  "consider  tlie  stand  he  has  taken  j^ii'      , 
V*^'^ great  pul)lic  questioiis,  and  >thecoMribtition -which  his  temper¥^    ^ 
'.  mcnt,  aljility,  and  character  make  toward  his  fitness  for  the  highest^'vX^ 
J^'    ollice  ill  the  gift  of  the  nation.  ■  Z\\v.  Allison  has  just  been  honoreci^*^'^ 
^tmt&S"  State  of   Iowa  with  a  fifth  election  to  the  Senate  oi 'th^^    . 
^V!^^^->'X)fiS^'^  and  this  circu'tn stance,  rare  in  the  history  of  ouf^  -M^A 

^-^9~^Mnnt^,  has --an  added  significance  in  the  fact  that  every  election 
by  his  party  associates  has  been  unanimous.  On  the  last  occasion 
no  other  name  was  even  mentioned  for  the  office,  and  the  election 
was  followed  by  a  scene  memorable  for  its  enthusiasm,  in  which 
the  representatives  of  both  parties  in  the  legislature  joined.  Thirty 
years'  continuous  congressional  service  on  the  part  of  a  citizen  of 
a  State,  confessedly  high  in  intelligence,  is  in  itself  an  evidence  of 

f^t  liiay  n6i  seem  that  the  few  minutes  which  are  given  each  day 
to  physicahpulture  in  our  schools  will  affect  materially,  for  better 
or  worse^^Jtfe  chfCvacter  and  bearing  of  the  children  who  are  sub- 
jected to  it ;  Jij^  \)Orien  it  is  remembered  that  this  sort  of  thing  goes 
on  day  after  day  for  eight  or  nine  years,  its  influence  will  be  more 

^^       readily  appreciated,  and  its  hygienic  importance  more  fully  real- 
ized.    If  the  present  mental  strain  is  to  continue  in  our  schools, 

'^       then  we  must  strive  to  overcome  the  nervousness  which  it  induces 
through  the  efficient  culture  of  the  body.     We  must  not  have  as 

f  our  ideal  of  the  work  of  physical  training  the  development  of 

great  muscular  strength  and  dexteritviso  much  as  the  promotion 
of  health,  and  rendering  the  body  an  unconscious  and  ready  ^ 
instrument  of  the  mind  in  the  expression  of  its  most  gracious 
qualities.  Nor  can  we  hope,  under  the  conditions  which  exist  in 
our  schools,  to  make  the  bodies  of  all  our  children  symmetrical 
and  harmonious  by  physical  training  ;*1^  we  have  to  deal  there 
with  children  in  the  great  average,  and  it  is  only  by  dealing  with 

0  & 


•4 


Composition- Rhetoric, 

(!ividual  tendencies  that  we  can  secure  perfect  symmetry  and 
harmony.  But  after  all,  this  is  not  such  a  serious  question ;  3(Tr  if 
we  can  foster  and  promote  the  health  of  children,  and  induce  in 
them  the  right  attitude  of  spirit,  the  tendency  of  nature  toward 
symmetry  and  harmony  will  produce  gratifying  results. 

In  the  morning,  very  early,  we  heard  the  enemy's  trumpets 
sound  to  horse;  IJiis  roused  us  to  look  abroad;  and  sending  out  a 
scout,  he  brought  us  word  a  party  of  the  enemy  was  at  hand.  We 
were  vexed  to  be  so  disappointed,  but  finding  their  party  small 
enough  to  be  dealt  with.  Sir  Marmaduke  ordered  me  to  cKaj-ge 
them  with  three  hundred  horse  and  two  hundred  dragoons,  ^i^Wjf 
he  at  the  same  time  entered  the  town.  Accordingly  I  lay  stm  till 
they  came  to  the  very  skirt  of  the  wood  where  I  was  postedj^^en 
I  saluted  them  with  a  volley  from  my  dragoons  out  of  the  wood, 
and  immediately  showedi  myself  with  my  horse  on  their  front, 
ready  to  charge  them  ,>Jiey  appeared  not  toA^p  surprised,  and 
received  our  charge  with  great  resolution;  a^d^bQing  above  four  / 
hundred  men,  they  pushed  me  vigorously  in  their  turn,  putting  my  '^J^ 
men  into  some  disorder.  In  this  extremity,  I  sent  to  order  my  ^ 
dragoons  to  charge  them  in  the  flank,  which  they  did  with  great 
bravery,  and  the  other  still  maintained  the  fight  with  desperate 
resolution.  There  was  no  want  of  courage  in/our  men  on  both 
sides,  but  our  dragoons  had  the  advantage,  and  at  last  routed 
them,  and  drove  them  back  to  the  village.  Here  Sir  Marmaduke 
Langdale  had  his  hands  full  too ;  for  my  firing  had  alarmed  the 
towns  adjacent,  that  when  he  came  into  the  town,  he  found  them 
all  in  arms ;  and  contrary  to  liis  expectations,  two  regiments  of 
foot  with  about  three  hundred  horse  more.  As  Sir  Marmaduke 
had  no  foot,  only  horse  and  dragoons,  this  was  a  surprise  to  him ; 
but  he  caused  his  dragoons  to  enter  the  town,  and  charge  the  foot, 
while  his  horse  secured  the  avenues  of  the  town. 

The  dragoons  bravely  attacked  the  foot,  and  Sir  Marmaduke 
falling  in  with  his  horse,  the  fight  was  obstinate  and  very  bloody, 
when  the  horse  that  I  had  routed  came  flying  into  the  street  of  the 
village,  and  my  men  at  their  heels.  Immediately  I  left  the  pur- 
suit, and  fell  in  with  all  my  force  to  the  assistance  of  my  friends,|l  I 
-SMfd^i^er  an  obstinate  resistance,  we  routed  the  whole  party  ^ ^^Jl^^ 
killed  about  seven  hundred  men,  took  three  hundred  and  fifty, 


How  to  Say  It,  149 

twenty-seven  officers,  onje  hundred  arms,  all  their  baggage,  and 
two  hundred  horses,^  aWp^iDntinueTl  our  march  to  Harborough, 
where  we  halted  to  refresh  ourselves. 


^  EXERCm:^    44. 


\\\jn^}j}M 


'  Introduce  at  the  point  indicated  in  each  of  the  following 
paragraphs  a  brief  sentence  as  striking  and  emphatic  as  you 
can  make  it :  — 

1.   Mr.  Adams  carried  with  him  into  Congress  all  hjs  jorevious  ^     ^% 

liabotsof  industry  and  close  application  to  business.     2. '^  I^otI"^^**^ 


sentence^lmouncing  the  idea  developed  in  sentences  3  and  4.] 
3.  Few  men  spent  more  hours  in  the  twenty-four  in  assiduous 
labor.  4.  He  would  take  no  active  part  in  any  matter,  would 
engage  in  the  discussion  of  no  topic,  and  would  not  commit  him- 
self on  any  question,  until  he  had  sounded  it  to  its  nether  depths, 
and  explored  all  its  ramifications,  all  its  bearings  and  irj^uenpes, 
and  had  thoroughly  become  master  of  the  subject.  5.  ^^^  snort 
^'^"'sem^nife  W^v transition. J  V 6.  It  was  in  this  manner  that  he  w^as 
enabled  to  overwhelm  with  surprise  his  cotemporaries  in  Congress, 
by  the  profundity  of  his  knowledge.  7.  No  subject  could  be 
started,  no  question  discussed,  on  which  he  was  not  perfectly  at 
home.  8.  Without  hesitation  or  mistake,  he  could  pour  forth 
a  stream  of  facts,  dates,  names,  places,  accompanied  with  narra- 
tions, anecdotes,  reflections,  and  arguments,  until  the  matter  was 
thoroughly  sifted  and  laid  bare  in  all  its  parts  and  properties,  to 
the  understanding .  of  the  most  casual  pbserver.  9.  [A 'Sworr 
^iSl^^^yiWiiM^  ti?^-^'!fed-of>k^teftbfes  10,  11,  and  12.] 
10.  Alas  for  the  man  who  questioned  the  correctness  of  his 
statements,  his  facts,  or  dates.  11.  Sure  discomfiture  awaited 
him.  12.  His  mind  was  a  perfect  calendar,  a  storehouse,  a  mine 
of  knowledge,  in  relation  to  all  past  events  connected  wdth  the 
history  of  his  country  and  his  age. 

1.  In  connection  with  his  other  exemplary  virtues,  Mr.  Adams 
was  prompt,  faithful,  unwearied,  in  the  discharge  of  all  his  public 
duties.  2.  The  oldest  member  of  the  House,  he  was  at  the  same 
time  the  most  punctual  —  the  first  at  his  post ;  the  last  to  retire 
from  the  labors  of  the  day.     3.    [A  short  sentence  of  transition.] 


150  Oomposition- Rhetoric, 

4.    While  many  others  might  be  negligent  in  their   attendance, 
sauntering  in  idleness,  engaged  in  frivolous  amusements,  or  even 
in  dissipation,  he  v^as  always  at  his  post.     5.   No  call  of  the  House 
was  necessary,  no  sergeant-at-arms  need  be  despatched,  to  bring 
him  within  the  Hall  of  Representatives.     6.   He  was  the  last  to 
move  an  adjournment,  or  to  adopt  any  device  to  consume  time  or 
neglect  the  public  business  for  personal  convenience  or  c'lrttifica-     a 
tion.     7.    [A  sftort  sentence  summarizing  all' the  preceding  sen-^-^^ 
tences.]     8.   His  example  can  be  most  profitably  imitated  by  those  ^^^ 
who  would  arise  to  eminence  in  the  councils  of  the  nation.  (]   0 

1.  A  great  orator  must  have  fervor.  2.  In  the  physical  world, 
force  can  be  resolved  into  heat.  3.  It  is  the  same  in  the  spiritual 
world.  4.  The  whole  truths  which  the  orator  contemplates  stir 
all  the  faculties  of  his  soul  into  intense  action,  and  this  intense 
action  takes  the  form  of  heat  —  of  fervor.  5.  His  tone  may  be 
high  or  low,  his  enunciation  may  be  rapid  or  slow,  his  language 
may  be  plain  or  figurative,  but  in  any  case  the  fervor  is  apparent. 
6.  His  face  glows,  his  eyes  sparkle,  his  words  burn,  and  his  very 
sentences  are  poured  f ortK. in  anjBasy^d  continuous^ flow  as  i^  —  . 
they  were  molten.  7.  [AwS^t  SftM-OT^g'^SftMACp^^'^^lr^^ 
figurative.]    (£.  j^UL^Ui^ 

1.  An  earnest  student  i^prone  to  ruin  his  health.  2.  Hope 
cheats  him  with  the  belief  that  if  he  can  study  now  without 
cessation,  he  can  do  so  always.  3.  Because  he  does  not  see  the 
end  of  his  strength,  he  foolishly  concludes  there  is  no  end.  4.  A 
spendthrift  of  health  is  one  of  the  most  reprehensible  of  spend- 
thrifts. 5.  I  am  certain  I  could  have  performed  twice  the  labor, 
both  better  and  with  greater  ease  to  myself,  had  I  known  so  much 
of  the  laws  of  health  and  life  at  twenty-one,  as  I  do  now.  6.  In 
college  I  was  taught  all  about  the  motions  of  the  planets,  as  care- 
fully as  though  they  would  have  been  in  danger  of  getting  off  the 
track  if  I  had  not  known  how  to  trace  their  orbits ;  but  about  my 
own  organization,  and  the  conditions  indispensable  to  the  health- 

^nd  ignorance, 
tfave  begun  at 

home,  and  taken  the  stars  when  it  should  come  their  turn.  9.  The 
consequence  was,  I  broke  down  at  the  beginning  of  my  second 
college  year,  and  have  never  had  a  well  day  since.     10.  Whatever 


ful  fu?^ctk)ns  of  my  own  body,  I^was  l(i?ft  in  Drafound 
7.  lk^hh.\S^uSe*Ui-m^im^  ^?  I  tSfeiet^Wi'a 


\n}A\J'^  ^  ^UA^' 


How  to  Say  It,  151 

labor  I  have  been  since  able  to  do,  I  have  done  it  all  on  credit 
instead  of  capital,  —  a  most  ruinous  way,  either  in  regard  to  health 
or  money.  11.  For  the  last  twenty-five  years,  so  far  as  it  regards 
health,  I  have  been  put  from  day  to  day  on  my  good  behavior; 
and  during  the  whole  of  this  period,  as  an  Hibernian  would  say, 
if  I  had  lived  as  other  folks  do  for  a  month,  I  should  have  died  in 
a  fortnight. 


LESSON  22. 

Long  Sentences  and  Their  Uses. 

We  have  seen  (Lesson  13)  that  a  paragraph  may  be  made 
up  of  a  topic-sentence  followed  by  the  particulars  and  details 
which  the  topic-sentence  calls  for.  When  each  detail  is 
brief  and  the  details  taken  together  resemble  an  inventory 
or  a  catalogue,  they  are  best  grouped  in  long  sentences,  as 
in  the  following  paragraph :  — 

There  is  scarcely  a  scene  or  object  familiar  to  the  Galilee  of 
that  day,  which  Jesus  did  not  use  as  a  moral  illustration  of  some 
glorious  promise  or  moral  law.  [Details]  He  spoke  of  green 
fields  and  springing  flowers,  and  the  budding  of  the  vernal  trees ; 
of  the  red  or  lowering  sky;  of  sunrise  and  sunset;  of  wind  and 
rain;  of  night  and  storm;  of  clouds  and  lightning;  of  stream 
and  river;  of  stars  and  lamps;  of  honey  and  salt;  of  quivering 
bulrushes  and  burning  weeds;  of  rent  garments  and  bursting 
wine-skins;  of  eggs  and  serpents;  of  pearls  and  pieces  of  money; 
of  nets  and  fish.  Wine  and  wheat,  corn  and  oil,  stewards  and 
gardeners,  laborers  and  employers,  kings  and  shepherds,  travellers 
and  fathers  of  families,  courtiers  in  soft  clothing  and  brides  in 
nuptial  robes  —  all  these  are  found  in  His  discourses.  —  Farrar  : 
Life  of  Christ,  1:211. 

The  material  after  the  first  sentence  in  the  preceding 
paragraph  is  organized  into  tw^o  long  sentences  rather  than 
one,  in  order  to  vary  the  method  a  little  and  to  prevent 


^ 


152  Composition- Rhetoric, 

the  discourse  from  becoming  wearisome.  This  is  a  good 
reason  for  not  making  a  sentence  too  long.  A  better  reason 
for  the  grouping  of  details  into  several  long  sentences 
appears  in  the  following  paragraph.!  Here  the  grouping 
of  particulars  into  long  sentences  shows  plainly  the  differ- 
ent stages  of  the  calamity  in  the  order  of  time.  In  the 
second  sentence  are  grouped  all  the  details  that  belong  to 
the  first  stage ;  in  the  third,  all  the  details  that  make  up 
the  second  stage;  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  we  are  told  the 
effect  upon  the  minds  of  the  people.  The  fourth  and  fifth 
would  probably  have  been  united  into  one  sentence  but  for 
the  fact  that  this  would  have  made  the  sentence  needlessly 


long^ 


1.  In  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  Yalentinian  and  Valens, 
on  the  morning  of  the  twenty-first  day  of  July,  the  greatest  part 
of  the  Roman  world  was  shaken  by  a  violent  and  destructive  earth- 
quake. 2.  The  impression  was  communicated  to  the  waters ;  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  were  left  dry,  by  the  sudden  retreat 
of  the  sea ;  great  quantities  of  fish  were  caught  by  the  hand ;  large 
vessels  were  stranded  on  the  mud ;  and  a  curious  spectator  amused 
his  eye,  or  rather  his  fancy,  by  contemplating  the  various  appear- 
ance of  valleys  and  mountains,  which  had  never,  since  the  forma- 
tion of  the  globe,  been  exposed  to  the  sun.  3.  But  the  tide  soon 
returned,  with  the  weight  of  an  immense  and  irresistible  deluge, 
which  was  severely  felt  on  the  coasts  of  Sicily,  of  Dalmatia,  of 
Greece,  and  of  Egypt :  large  boats  were  transported,  and  lodged  on 
the  roofs  of  houses,  or  at  the  distance  of  two  miles  from  the  shore ; 
the  people,  with  their  habitations,  were  swept  away  by  the  waters ; 
and  the  city  of  Alexandria  annually  commemorated  the  fatal 
day,  on  which  fifty  thousand  persons  had  lost  their  lives  in  the 
inundation.  4.  This  calamity,  the  report  of  which  was  magnified 
from  one  province  to  another,  astonished  and  terrified  the  subjects 
of  Rome ;  and  their  affrighted  imagination. enlarged  the  real  extent 
of  a  momentary  evil.  5.  They  recollected  the  preceding  earth- 
quakes, which  had  subverted  the  cities  of  Palestine  and  Bithynia : 
they  considered  these  alarming  strokes  as  the  prelude  only  of  still 
more  dreadful  calamities,  and  their  fearful  vanity  was  disposed 


How  to  Say  It,  153 

to  confound  the  symptoms  of  a  declining  empire,  and  a  sinking 
world.  —  Gibbon  :  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  th^  Roman 
Empire,  III,  1,  2. 

In  the  following  paragraphs,  notice  that  the  longer  sen- 
tences are  used  to  explain  or  illustrate  what  is  said  in  the 
shorter  sentences ;  the  long  sentences  show  the  relation  of 
the  principal  idea  (expressed  in  a  short  sentence)  to  several 
subordinate  ideas  (grouped  in  a  long  sentence). 

Our  arts  are  happy  hits.  We  are  like  the  musician  on  the  lake, 
whose  melody  is  sweeter  than  he  knows,  or  like  a  traveller,  sur- 
prised by  a  mountain  echo,  whose  trivial  word  returns  to  him  in 
romantic  thunders.  —  Emerson  :  Essay  on  Art. 

A  man  in  pursuit  of  greatness  feels  no  little  wants.  How  can 
you  mind  diet,  bed,  dress,  or  salutes  or  compliments,  or  the  figure 
you  make  in  company,  or  wealth,  or  even  the  bringing  things 
to  pass,  when  you  think  how  paltry  are  the  machinery  and  the 
workers  ?  Wordsworth  was  praised  to  me,  in  Westmoreland,  for 
having  afforded  to  his  country  neighbors  an  example  of  a  modest 
household  where  comfort  and  culture  were  secured  without  dis- 
play. And  a  tender  boy  who  wears  his  rusty  cap  and  outgrown 
coat,  that  he  may  secure  the  coveted  place  in  college,  and  the 
right  in  the  library,  is  educated  to  some  purpose.  There  is  a  great 
deal  of  self-denial  and  manliness  in  poor  and  middle-class  houses, 
in  town  and  country,  that  has  not  got  into  literature,  and  never 
will,  but  that  keeps  the  earth  sweet ;  that  saves  on  superfluities, 
and  spends  on  essentials;  that  goes  rusty,  and  educates  the  boy; 
that  sells  the  horse,  but  builds  the  school ;  works  early  and  late, 
takes  two  looms  in  the  factory,  three  looms,  six  looms,  but  pays 
off  the  mortgage  on  the  paternal  farm,  and  then  goes  back  cheer- 
fully to  work  again.  —  Emerson  :  Essay  on  Culture. 

The  very  mode  in  which  a  crowd  is  formed  is  highly  favorable 
to  its  hypnotization,  and  hence  to  its  becoming  a  mob.  At  first 
a  crowd  is  formed  by  some  strange  object  or  occurrence  suddenly 
arresting  the  attention  of  men.  Other  men  coming  up  are  attracted 
by  curiosity :  they  wish  to  learn  the  reason  of  the  gathering ; 
they  fix  their  attention  on  the  object  that  fascinates  the  crowd, 


154  Compositio7i'Rhetoric, 

are  fascinated  in  their  turn,  and  thus  the  crowd  keeps  on  growing. 
With  the  increase  of  numbers  grows  the  strength  of  fascination; 
the  hypnotization  increases  in  intensity,  until,  when  a  certain 
critical  point  is  reached,  the  crowd  becomes  completely  hypno- 
tized, and  is  ready  to  obey  blindly  the  commands  of  its  hero ;  it 
is  now  a  mob.  Thus  a  mob  is  a  hypnotized  crowd.  —  Atlantic, 
75 :  190. 

In  comparing  or  contrasting  two  things  or  ideas,  long  sen- 
tences are  frequently  needed.  In  the  following  paragraph 
the  first  part  of  the  contrast  is  seen  in  the  second  sen- 
tence, the  second  part  in  the  third  and  fourth  sentences :  - 

'•  Whenever  the  arts  and  labors  of  life\are  fulfilled  in  this  spirit 
of  striving  against  misrule,  and  doing  Whatever  we  have  to  do, 
honorably  and  perfectly,  they  invariably  \br in g  happiness,  as  much 
as  seems  possible  to  the  nature  of  man. 2^,  In  all  other  paths,  by 
which  that  happiness  is  pursued,  there  is  disappointment,  or  de- 
struction :  for  ambition  and  for  passion  there  is  no  rest  —  no 
fruition  ;  the  fairest  pleasures  of  youth  perish  in  a  darkness  greater 
than  their  past  light ;  and  the  loftiest  and  purest  love  too  often 
does  but  inflame  the  cloud  of  life  with  endless  fire  of  pain.i  .But, 
ascending  from  lowest  to  highest,  through  every  scale  of  human 
industry,  that  industry  worthily  followed  gives  peace  j^  Ask  the 
laborer  in  the  field,  at  the  forge,  or  in  the  mine ;  ask  the  patient, 
delicate-fingered  artisan,  or  the  strong-armed,  fiery-hearted  worker  ^  -'U 
in  bronze,  and  in  marble,  and  with  the  colors  of  light;  and  none.U-^ 
of  these,  who  are  true  workmen,  will  ever  tell  you  that  they  have 
found  the  law  of  heaven  an  unkind  one  —  that  in  the  sweat  of 
their  face  they  should  eat  bread,  till  they  return  to  the  ground ; 
nor  that  they  ever  found  it  an  unrewarded  obedience,  if,  indeed, 
it  was  rendered  faithfully  to  the  command  —  "Whatsoever  thy 
hand  findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  thy  might."  —  Ruskin  :  The  Mys- 
tery of  Life,  sec.  128. 

Men  sometimes  go  dowm  into  tombs,  with  painful  longings  to 
behold  once  more  the  faces  of  their  departed  friends ;  and  as  they 
gaze  upon  them,  lying  there  so  peacefully  with  the  semblance 
that  they  wore  on  earth,  the  sweet  breath  of  heaven  touches  them, 


How  to  Say  It,  155 

and  the  features  crumble  and  fall  together,  and  are  but  dust.  So 
did  his  soul  then  descend  for  the  last  time  into  the  great  tomb  of 
the  Past,  with  painful  longings  to  behold  once  more  the  dear  faces 
of  those  he  had  loved ;  and  the  sweet  breath  of  heaven  touched 
them,  and  they  would  not  stay,  but  crumbled  away  and  perished 
as  he  gazed.  They,  too,  were  dust.  And  thus,  far-sounding,  he 
heard  the  great  gate  of  the  past  shut  behind  him,  as  the  divine 
poet  did  the  gate  of  Paradise,  when  the  angel  pointed  him  the 
way  up  the  Holy  Mountain ;  and  to  him  likewise  was  it  forbidden 
to  look  back.  —  Longfellow:  Hyperion,  chap.  YIII. 

In  some  paragraphs  the  sentences  grow  longer  as  the 
thought  becomes  more  important  and  forcible.  This  re- 
sults in  climax.    Notice  this  in  the  following  paragraphs :  — 

The  people  always  conquer.  They  always  must  conquer.  Ar- 
mies may  be  defeated,  kings  may  be  overthrown,  and  new  dynas- 
ties imposed,  by  foreign  arms,  on  an  ignorant  and  slavish  race, 
that  care  not  in  what  language  the  covenant  of  their  subjection 
runs,  nor  in  whose  name  the  deed  of  their  barter  and  sale  is  made 
out.  But  the  people  never  invade ;  and,  when  they  rise  against 
the  invader,  are  never  subdued.  If  they  are  driven  from  the 
plains,  they  fly  to  the  mountains.  Steep  rocks  and  everlasting 
hills  are  their  castles ;  the  tangled,  pathless  thicket  their  palisado, 
and  nature,  God,  is  their  ally.  Now  he  overwhelms  the  hosts  of 
their  enemies  beneath  his  drifting  mountains  of  sand;  now  he 
buries  them  beneath  a  falling  atmosphere  of  polar  snows ;  he  lets 
loose  his  tempests  on  their  fleets ;  he  puts  a  folly  into  their  coun- 
sels, a  madness  into  the  hearts  of  their  leaders  ;  and  never  gave, 
and  never  will  give,  a  final  triumph  over  a  virtuous  and  gallant 
people,  resolved  to  be  free.  —  Everett:  First  Battles  of  the  Revo- 
lution. 

We  are,  on  the  whole,  inclined  to  regret  that  Dryden  did  not 
accomplish  his  purpose  of  writing  an  epic  poem.  It  certainly 
would  not  have  been  a  work  of  the  highest  rank.  It  would  not 
have  rivalled  the  Iliad,  the  Odyssey,  or  the  Paradise  Lost ;  but  it 
would  have  been  superior  to  the  productions  of  Apollonius,  Lucan, 
or  Statins,  and  not  inferior  to  the  Jerusalem  Delivered.     It  would 


156  Composition-Rhetoric. 

probably  have  been  a  vigorous  narrative,  animated  with  some- 
thing of  the  spirit  of  the  old  romances,  enriched  with  much 
splendid  description,  and  interspersed  with  fine  declamations 
and  disquisitions.  The  danger  of  Dryden  would  have  been  from 
aiming  too  high;  from  dwelling  too  much,  for  example,  on  his 
angels  of  kingdoms,  and  attempting  a  competition  with  that 
great  writer  w^ho  in  his  own  time  had  so  incomparably  succeeded 
in  representing  to  us  the  sights  and  sounds  of  another  world. 
To  Milton,  and  to  Milton  alone,  belonged  the  secrets  of  the  great 
deep,  the  beach  of  sulphur,  the  ocean  of  fire,  the  palaces  of  the 
fallen  dominations,  glimmering  through  the  everlasting  shade,  the 
silent  wilderness  of  verdure  and  fragrance  where  armed  angels 
kept  watch  over  the  sleep  of  the  first  lovers,  the  portico  of  dia- 
mond, the  sea  of  jasper,  the  sapphire  pavement  empurpled  with 
celestial  roses,  the  infinite  ranks  of  the  Cherubim,  blazing  with 
adamant  and  gold.  The  council,  the  tournament,  the  procession, 
the  crowded  cathedral,  the  camp,  the  guard-room,  the  chase,  were 
the  proper  scenes  for  Dryden.  —  Macaul ay  :  Essay  on  Dryden. 

When  long  sentences  appear  frequently  in  a  paragraph, 
they  produce  an  impression  of  dignity,  grace,  and  rhyth- 
mical movement.     This  is  seen  in  the  following :  — 

The  principal  conquests  of  the  Romans  were  achieved  under  the 
Republic ;  and  the  emperors,  for  the  most  part,  were  satisfied  with 
preserving  those  dominions  which  had  been  acquired  by  the  policy 
of  the  senate,  the  active  emulation  of  the  consuls,  and  the  martial 
enthusiasm  of  the  people.  The  seven  first  centuries  were  filled  with 
a  rapid  succession  of  triumphs ;  but  it  was  reserved  for  Augustus 
to  relinquish  the  ambitious  design  of  subduing  the  whole  earth, 
and  to  introduce  a  spirit  of  moderation  into  the  public  councils. 
Inclined  to  peace  by  his  temper  and  situation,  it  was  easy  for  him 
to  discover  that  Rome,  in  her  present  exalted  situation,  had  much 
less  to  hope  than  to  fear  from  the  chance  of  arms ;  and  that,  in  the 
prosecution  of  remote  wars,  the  undertaking  became  every  day 
more  difficult,  the  event  more  doubtful,  and  the  possession  more 
precarious  and  less  beneficial.  The  experience  of  Augustus  added 
weight  to  these  salutary  reflections,  and  eifectually  convinced  him 
that,  by  the  prudent  vigor  of  his  counsels,  it  would  be  easy  to  secure 


How  to  Say  It.  157 

every  concession  which  the  safety  or  the  dignity  of  Rome  might 
require  from  the  most  formidable  barbarians.  Instead  of  exposing 
his  person  and  his  legions  to  the  arrows  of  the  Parthians,  he 
obtained,  by  an  honorable  treaty,  the  restitution  of  the  standards 
and  prisoners  which  had  been  taken  in  the  defeat  of  Crassus.  — 
Gibbon:  The  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  chap.  I. 

A  succession  of  sentences,  all  of  about  the  same  length, 
may  easily  result  in  tediousness.  Such  sentences,  when 
read  aloud,  require  the  voice  to  fall  at  about  the  same  inter- 
vals and  strike  the  ear  with  monotonous  regularity.  Variety 
in  length  of  sentences  is  desirable.  Excepting  in  the  first 
and  last  sentences,  the  following  paragraph  shows  a  monoto- 
nous regularity  when  read  aloud :  — 

I »  One  has  known  men,  great  and  small,  more  commonly  small, 
who  went  through  life  steadily  depreciating  and  vilipending  all 
human  beings  who  could  be  regarded  as  in  the  running  with  them- 
selves. But  among  such.  Bethel  was  facile  princeps.  He  despised 
his  predecessor  as  chancellor,  and  spoke  with  contempt  of  his 
judgments.  One  day,  under  the  im.pression  that  a  judgment 
quoted  was  Lord  Campbell's,  he  hastened  to  contemn  it.  But  the 
laugh  was  turned  when  it  was  at  once  stated  that  the  contemned 
judgment  was  his  own.  He  was  indeed  beyond  comparison,  in  his 
own  sphere,  greater  and  brighter  than  most  of  those  around  him. 
But  he  showed  far  too  plainly  that  he  knew  it.  Modesty  would 
have  been  a  glory,  being  combined  with  that  magnificent  ability. 
And  his  tongue  was  incredibly  sharp :  and  absolutely  unbridled. 
It  looks  as  though  he  never  kept  back  any  keen  saying  which  oc- 
curred to  him.  And  the  serene,  deliberate,  and  seemingly  affected 
manner  in  which  he  spoke,  gave  tenfold  bitterness.  It  did  not 
look  like  the  outburst  of  a  hasty  temper  at  all.  They  did  not 
seem  obiter  dicta,  those  vitriolic  sayings.  No  mortal  can  afford 
thus  to  indulge  his  idiosyncrasy.  He  made  enemies  on  every  side  : 
enemies  who  hated  him  with  an  incredible  malignity.  Each  of 
them  had  a  poisoned  dart  rankling  in  his  soul .j^,  And  the  day  came 
when  this  great  lawyer,  though  holding  his  place  in  magnificent 
competence,  was  surrounded  and  assailed  by  a  crowd  of  foes  who 
were  able  to  force  him  to  descend  from  the  highest  place  in  the  law. 


158  Composition-Rhetoric, 

Long  sentences  are  nseful  for  grouping  sabordinate  details,  for 
explanations  and  contrasts,  for  climax,  and  for  dignity  and  rhyth- 
mical movement. 

EXERCISE  45. 

Account  for  the  use  of  the  long  sentences  of  the  para- 
graphs quoted  in  Lessons  12  to  20. 

EXERcis^e.  VXML^^^';;^ 

Convert  the  following  short=sHHtShce  paragraphs  into 
paragraphs  of  longer  sentences  of  different  lengths. 

The  winter  put  a  stop  to  military  o^erations^    All 
gone  well.     But  the  real  tug  of  war  was  still  to  comeJr'^R^was  easy 
to  foresee  that  the  year  1757  would  be  a  memorable  era  in  the  his- 
tory of  Europe. 

The  scheme  for  the  campaign  was  simple,  bold,  and  judicious*^:^ 
tCiV^^'^^he  Duke  of  Cumberland  with  an  English  and  Hanoverian  army 
was  in  Western  Germany,  and  might  be  able  to  prevent  the  French 
troops  from  attacking  Prussia.  The  Russians,  confined  by  their 
snows,  would  probably  not  tstir  till  the  spring  was  far  advanced. 
Saxony  was  prostratedP-^l^wdden  could  do  nothing  very  important.. 
During  a  Aw  iiionths.  Frederick  would  have  to  deal  with  Austria 
alone^^^en  rmiSf  thS  bddl  <^ere  against  him.  But  ability  and 
courage  have  often  triumphed  against  odds  still  more  formidable. 

Early  in  1757  the  Prussian  army  in  Saxony  began  to  move.QdS^ 
Through  four  defiles  in  the  mountains  thoy  oamft  pouring  into 
Bohemia.  Prague  was  his  first  TCidi,x\yws^  the  ulterior  object 
was  probably  Vienna.  At  Prague  lay  Marshal  Brown  with  one 
great  armyr^)aun,  the  most  cautious  and  fortunate  of  the  Aus- 
trian capt^ns,  was  advancing  with  another.  Frederick  deter- 
mined to  overwhelm  Brown  before  Daun  should  arrive.  On  the 
sixth  of  May  was  fought,  under  those  walls  which  a  hundred  and 
thirty  years  before  had  witnessed  the  victory  of  the  Catholic 
league  and  the  flight  of  the  unhappy  Palatine,  a  battle  more 
bloody  than  any  which  Europe  saw  during  the  long  interval 
between   Malplaquet   and  Eylau.      The  king  and  Prince  Ferdi- 


How  to  Say  It,  159 

nand  of  Brunswick  were  distinguished  on  that  day  by  their  \A^j]S 
valor  and  exertions.  But  the  chief  glory  was  with  Schwerin^  \3fi^) 
When  the  Prussian  infantry  wavered,  tjip  stout  old  marahal  ^^"^ 
snatched  the  colors  from  an  ensign,  and,  waving  them  in  the  air,  OnAA/*^ 
led  back  his  regiment  to  the  charge.  Thus  at  seventy-two  years  V^i 
of  age  he  fell  in  the  thickest  of  the  battle,  still  grasping  the 
standard  which  bears  the  black  ea^le  pn  the  field  argent.  The 
victory  remained  with  the  king^  -^®iwf  it  had  been  dearly  pun 


chased.     Whole  columns  of  his  bravest  warriors  had  fallenS^  ne 
admitted  that  he  had  lost  eighteen  thousand  men.     Of  the  enemyrr 
twenty-four  thousand  had  been  killed,  wounded,  or  taken.,  \  OLA/J"^^^^ 

Part  of  the  defeated  army  was  shut  up  in  Pragaer^Tart  fled 
to  join  the  troops  which,  under  the  command  of  Daun,  were  now 
close  at  hand.  Frederick  determined  to  play  over  the  same  game 
which  had  succeeded  at  Lowositz.  He  left  a  large  force  to  besiege 
Prague,  and  at  the  head  of  thirty  thousand  men  he  marched  against 
Daun.  The  cautious  marshal,  though  he  had  great  superiority  in 
numbers,  would  risk  nothing:-  He  occupied  at  Kolin  a  position 
almost  impregnable,  and  awaited  the  attack  of  the  king. 


<yi/jJ^^^^^\ 


EXERCISE  47. 


On  one  or'fKefollowing  outlines  write  a  paragraph,  using  short 
sentences  almost  exclusively.  On  the  same  outline  write  another 
paragraph,  using  long  sentences  almost  exclusively.  Compare  the 
two.  Which  reads  the  better  ?  Which  is  the  more  easily  followed 
by  a  listener?  What  is  lacking  in  the  first,  what  in  the  second? 
Write  a  third  paragraph  on  the  same  outline,  combining  the  best 
parts  of  the  other  two,  and  using  sentences  of  different  lengths. 
Bring  all  three  of  the  paragraphs  to  class. 

I.    Theme :  Learning  to  ride  a  bicycle. 

Topic-sentence :  Difficulty  of  the  task. 

a.  Mounting. 

b.  First  fall. 

c.  Collision  with  a  pedestrian. 

d.  Into  the  ditch. 

e.  A  friend  to  the  rescue. 
/.  The  secret  won. 


160  Composition-Rhetoric, 

II.    Theme :  Books  that  I  have  enjoyed  reading. 

Topic-sentence :  The  kinds  of  books  that  I  enjoy. 
a.  Poetry  (several  sentences  stating  names  of  au- 
thors and  poems,  and  reasons  why  the  poems 
are  pleasant  reading). 
h.  Prose  (as  under  a). 

III.  Theme :  The  character  of  a  friend. 
Topic-sentence :  His  most  prominent  trait. 

a.  His  likes,  with  illustrations. 

b.  His  dislikes,  with  illustrations. 

IV.  Theme :  Advantage  of  knowing  how  to  sing. 
Topic-sentence:  General  nature  of  these  advantages. 

a.  Singing  is  a  pleasure  to  one's  self. 

b.  Ability  to  sing  gives  certain  social  advantages. 

c.  Disadvantages  of   inability  to  sing  illustrated 

from  observation  or  experience. 


->5f 


EXERCISE  48. 

On  one  of  the  following  topic-sentences  write  a  paragraph  of 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  words.  After  writing,  examine  the 
paragraph  with  these  two  questions  in  mind :  (1)  Does  the  divi- 
sion of  the  paragraph  into  sentences  correspond  to  the  natural 
division  of  the  thought?  (2)  Is  there  variety  of  sentence-lengths? 
Revise  the  paragraph  so  that  these  two  questions  may  be  answered 
affirmatively. 

1.  It  was  an  old  tumble-down  house. 

2.  Lincoln's  journey  to  Washington  was  fraught  with 
secret  perils. 

3.  "  Study  what  you  like  "  has  an  attractive  sound,  but 
is  it  good  advice  ? 

4.  It  is  not  true  charity  to  give  money  to  every  beggar 
one  meets. 

5.  Not  what  a  man  earns,  but  what  he  saves,  makes  him 
rich. 


---^-"Mow  to  Say  It.\  161 

I  should  like  a  newspaper  without  advertisements. 
Fashions  in  dress  are  less  extreme  than  formerly. 
We  are  willing  to  admit  that  the  English  sparrows 
have  some  very  admirable  traits. 

9.   A  Chinese  school-room  is  a  noisy  place. 
10.    It  is  hard  to  explain  the  actions  of  some  people. 


■-<LjAJL>^>"  JLESSON  23. 

Uses  of  the  Loose  Sentence. 


^ 


Whether  long  or  short,  every  sentence  is  also,  in  the 
arrangement  of  its  parts,  loose  or  periodic  or  balanced.  A 
sefTEenceTs  sai3.  to  be  loose  if,  without  destroyingTJs  mean- 
ing, it  can  be  ended  at  a  point  earlier  than  the  close. 
Notice  the  structure  of  the  sentences  in  the  following  par- 
agraph. In  every  one  of  them  there  is  at  least  one  point, 
before  the  close,  at  which  the  sentence  might  end,  without 
violence  to  the  sense. 

1.  One  afternoon  we  visited  a  cave,  some  two  miles  down  the 
streamjwhich  had  recently  been  discovered.  2.  We  squeezed  and 
wriggled  through  a  big  crack  or  cleft  in  the  side  of  the  mountain 
for  about  one  hundred  feeg\when  we  emerged  into  a  large,  dome- 
shaped  passage/Jihe  abode,  during  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  of  in- 
numerable bats,  and  at  all  times  of  primeval  darkness.  3.  There 
were  various  other  crannies  and  pit-holes  opening  into  it]  some  of 
which  we  explored.  4.  The  voice  of  running  water  wAs  every- 
where heard,  betraying  the  proximity  of  ^ii^  little  streamlby 
whose  ceaseless  corroding  the  cave  and  its  entrance  had  been 
worn.  5.  This  streamlet  flowed  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  cave, 
and  came  from  a  lakej)n  the  top  of  the  mountain ;  this  accounted 
for  its  warmth  to  the  handjwhich  surprised  us  all.  —  Burroughs  : 
Wake  Robin;  Adirondack. 

The  paragraph  of  loose  sentences  resembles  good  conver- 
sation.    It  is  easy  and  natural  and  entirely  without  pom- 


162  OompositioU'Rhetoric, 

pousness ;  there  is  no  waiting  for  the  full  meaning.  In 
each  loose  sentence  the  main  statement  (subject  and  verb) 
is  given  at  once  and  is  followed  by  an  added  clause  or 
phrase.  Loose  sentences  are  such  as  one  finds  in  great 
numbers  in  letters,  stories,  news-articles,  and  familiar  dis- 
course of  all  kinds. 

Broadway  is  miles  upon  miles  long,  a  rush  of  life  such  as  I 
never  have  seeiiJ)not  so  full  as  the  Strand,  but  so  rapid.  The 
houses  are  always  being  torn  down  and  built  up  again,  the  rail- 
road cars  drive  slap  into  the  midst  of  the  city.  There  are  barri- 
cades and  scaffoldings  banging  everywhere.  I  have  not  been  into 
a  house,  except  the  fat  country  one,  but  something  new  is  being 
done  to  it,  and  the  hammerings  are  clattering  in  the  passageior  a 
wall  or  steps  are  down,  or  the  family  is  going  to  move.  Nobody 
is  quiet  herejno  more  am  I.  The  rush  and  restlessness  plea,ses 
me,  and  I  like,  for  a  little,  the  dash  of  the  stream.  I  am  not  re- 
ceived as  a  god,  which  I  like  too.  Th^e  is  one  paper  which  goes 
on  every  morning  saying  I  am  a  snob^nd  I  don't  say  no.  Six 
people  were  reading  it  at  breakfast  this  morning,  and  the  man 
opposite  me  popped  it  under  the  table  cloth.  But  the  other 
papers  roar  with  approbation. — Letters  of  Thackeray,  159. 

It  is  not  often  that  a  paragraph  is  made  up  exclusively  of  loose  sen- 
tences. In  the  great  majority  of  paragraphs  it  is  desirable  to  employ 
sentences  of  various  types  and  of  various  lengths.  The  following  selec- 
tion contains  four  loose  sentences  (2,  3,  5,  7)  out  of  a  total  of  seven 
sentences :  — 

1.  If  the  art  of  writing  had  been  unknown  till  now,  and  if  the 
invention  of  it  were  suddenly  to  burst  upon  the  world  as  did  that 
of  the  telephone,  one  of  the  things  most  generally  said  in  praise  of 
it  would  be  this/^2.  It  would  be  said:-r"  What  a  gain  to  frie^id- 
ship  now  that  friends  can  communicat^in  spite  of  separation  by 
the  very  widest  distances  !  "  '"^  — '^  •  * 

/^  3.  Yet  we  have  possessed  this  means  of  communicatiouj^-the 
fullest  and  best  of  all,  ifrom  remote  antiquiC^and  we  scarcely 
make  any  use  of  it^- certainly  not  any  use  responding  to  its  capa- 
bilities ;f  and  as  time  goes  on,  instead  of  developing  those  capabili- 


W  IL  163 


ties  by  practice  in  the  art  of  friendly  correspondence,  we  allow 
them  to  diminish  by  disuse. 

4.  The  lowering  of  cost  for  the  transport  of  letters,  instead  of 
making  friendly  correspondents  numerous,  has  made  them  few. 

5.  The  cheap  postage-stamp  has  increased  business  correspondence 
prodigiouslvjbut  it  has  had  a  very  different  effect  on  that  of  friend- 
ship. 6.  Great  numbers  of  men  whose  business  correspondence 
is  heavy  scarcely  write  letters  of  friendship  at  all,/^.  Their  minds 
produce  the  business  letter  by  a  second  nature^and  are  otherwise 
sterile.  —  P.  G.  Hameuton:  Human  Intercourse. 

The  following  paragraph  contains  three  loose  sentences  (2,  3,  5) 
out  of  a  total  of  six  sentences  :  — 

1.  Our  forefathers  had  an  idea  with  regard  to  the  opinions  of 
their  children  that  in  these  days  we  must  be  content  to  give  up. 
2.  They  thought  that  all  opinions  were  by  nature  hereditary;^ 
and  it  was  considered  an  act  of  disloyalty  to  ancestors  if  a  descend- 
ant ventured  to  differ  from  them.""^^  The  profession  of  any  but 
the  family  opinions  was  so  rare  as  to  be  almost  inconceivablej  and 
if  in  some  great  crisis  the  head  of  a  family  took  a  new  departure 
in  religion  or  politics,  the  new  faith  substituted  itself  for  the  old 
one  as  the  hereditary  faith  of  the  family.  4.  I  remember  hearing 
an  old  gentleman  (who  represented  old  English  feeling  in  great 
perfection)  say  that  it  was  totally  unintelligible  to  him  that  a 
certain  member  of  parliament  could  sit  on  the  liberal  side  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  yr^^^I  cannot  understand  it,"  he  said;  "I 
knew  his  father  intimately^Jand  he  was  always  a  good  Tory." 

6.  The  idea  that  the  son  might  have  opinions  of  his  ow^n  was 
unthinkable.  —  P.  G.  Hamerton  :  Human  Intercourse. 

Well-constructed  loose  sentences  show  considerable  variety 
in  the  way  in  which  their  parts  are  put  together.  Thus  in 
the  paragraph  of  loose  sentences,  quoted  first  in  this  lesson, 
the  phrases  and  clauses  following  the  main  statement  of 
each  sentence  come  in  a  variety  of  orders  and  employ  a 
variety  of  introductory  words  in  the  different  sentences. 
Notice  in  sentence  2  how  skilfully  a  large  number  of  details 
are  managed  by  means  of  the  different  phrases,  and  how 


/         ^ 

164  Composition-Rhetoric, 

the  employment  of  the  words  "  the  abode,"  in  apposition  with 
the  word  "  passage/'  enables  the  writer  to  hold  the  sentence 
open  for  two  other  details.  Notice  that  sentence  4  is  pro- 
longed by  means  of  the  participle  "  betraying."  Notice  how 
much  new  material  the  use  of  the  words  "  by  whose  "  enables 
the  writer  to  bring  into  sentence  4. 

In  the  following  paragraph  notice  especially  (sentence  2) 
how  the  expression  "  to  make  money  "  stands  related  to  the 
main  statement  preceding.  Notice  also  the  great  variety 
of  prepositions  employed  in  this  paragraph  and  the  parti- 
cipial construction,  "  resulting,"  in  sentence  5. 

1.  The  New  York  Herald,  founded  in  1835  by  James  Gordon 
Bennett,  father  of  the  present  proprietor,  may  be  called  the  pioneer 
of  the  pressjconducted  upon  a  strictly  business  basis^  without  sub- 
serviency to  party  or  devotion  to  principle.^^.  Mr.  Bennett  had 
only  one  ideaj^  —  to  make  money  by  publishm^  the  news.  3.  He 
adhered  to  that  idea  with  the  utmost  tenacityJ  and  he  built  an 
immense  fortune  for  himself  upon  that  idea  as  a  foundation. 
4.  No  man  was  ever  less  solicitous  for  reformation  than  he,  yet  he 
proved  to  be  a  radical  reformer,  for  his  conspicuous  success  pro- 
duced a  profound  change  in  the  notions  of  newspaper  men,  all  over 
the  country.-^.  The  luxury  of  being  free  from  bondage  to  the 
politicians  and  the  prospect  of  increased  profits  hurried  on  the 
movement  for  an  independent  press  which  culminated  in  1872  in  a 
sharp  rebellion  by  the  newspapers  against  party  dictation,  result- 
ing in  the  nomination  of  Horace  Greeley  for  the  presidency. 

Unless  it  is  kept  well  in  hand  a  loose  sentence  may  be- 
come slovenly,  a  mere  string  of  clauses  and  phrases,  with 
no  firmness  or  direction.  There  are  three  special  dangers 
to  be  guarded  against  in  using  loose  sentences  in  succes- 
sion: first,  there  is  the  danger  that  all  will  begin  in  the 
same  way  (with  the  word  "  he,"  for  instance) ;  second,  that 
the  words  "  and,"  "  and,"  "  and,"  will  be  used  too  much  ; 
third,  that  the  sentences  will  all  close  in  the  same  way  (all 
with  a  phrase,  or  all  with  a  relative  clause). 


^ 


How  to  Say  It  165 


Use  the  loose  sentence  frequently,  for  its  easy  conversational 
effect.  Guard  against  over-looseness,  and  make  a  succession  of 
loose  sentences  show  variety  of  structure. 

EXERCISE  49. 
Find,  by  counting,  the  proportion  of  loose  to  the  total 
number  of  sentences  in  three  pages  of  your  school-history, 
or  in  a  half-column  news-article. 

EXERCISER     /KxMAyI  fl>(j. 

Turn  sentence  number  3  of  the  following  paragraph  into 
one  or  more  loose  sentences,  and  note  the  effect.  Do  the 
same  with  sentence  5.  Do  the"refiS6d  seiit'ences  fit  as 
closely  what  precedes  and  follows  tKem  ?  Is  anything  lost 
by  the  revision  ? 

Ee-write  the  second  quotation  in  several  loose  sentences. 

1.  It  is  admirable  to  know  that  those  things  which,  in  skill,  in 
art,  and  in  learning,  the  world  has  been  unwilling  to  let  die,  have 
not  only  been  the  conceptions  of  genius,  but  the  products  of  toil. 
2.  The  masterpieces  of  antiquity,  as  well  in  literature  as  in  art, 
are  known  to  have  received  their  extreme  finish  from  an  almost 
incredible  continuance  of  labor  upon  them.  3.  I  do  not  remember 
a  book  in  all  the  departments  of  learning,  nor  a  scrap  in  literature, 
nor  a  work  in  all  the  schools  of  art,  from  which  its  author  has 
derived  a  permanent  renown,  that  is  not  known  to  have  been  long 
and  patiently  elaborated.  4.  Genius  needs  industry,  as  much  as 
industry  needs  genius.  5.  If  only  Milton's  imagination  could  have 
conceived  his  visions,[pis  consummate  industry  only  could  have 
carved  the  immortal  nnes  which  enshrine  them.  6.  If  only  New- 
ton's mind  could  reach  out  to  the  secrets  of  nature,  even  his  could 
only  do  it  by  the  homeliest  toil.  7.  The  works  of  Bacon  are  not 
midsummer-night  dreams,  but,  like  coral  islands,  they  have  risen 
from  the  depths  of  truth,  and  formed  their  broad  surfaces  above 
the  ocean  by  the  minutest  accretions  of  persevering  labor.  8. 
The  conceptions  of  Michael  Angelo  would  have  perished  like  a 
night's  phantasy,  had  not  his  industry  given  them  permanence. 


166  Composition-Rhetoric. 

One  evening  f^ihe  people  were  coming  out  from  the  ffreat 
church  of  the  Trinity  of  the  Pilgrims  hard  by  my  fountaiiiJ"a33r 
Jihere  was  a  smell  of  incense  on  the  air,  and  a  sound  of  chanting 
everywh^xejbecause  it  was  in^the  days  of  Lent,  and  mirthful  King 
Carnival  had  gone  to  his  graye^  and  Pasquino  back  to  his  solitude, ~^i 
—  one  evening  ^  I  sat  stitching,  communj^ng  with  my  own 
thoughts,  and  not  liking  themJ  because  j^pf  latis' they  had  got  con- 
fused and  cloudy,  and  I  had  a  sense  of  impending  woe.wi%l 
4:^  corresponding  sense  of  how  to  meet  aud  to  prevent  itflGicj^ 
came  to  me  asfNher  habit  had  used  to  b^  tiioue'h  of  late  she  had 
changed  jt^  arfttTj  tiouching me  gently,  ^ai'd  to  me,  — ^ 

"  Let  us  go  for  one  of  our  old  walks.     Will  you  not  take  me  ? 
The  sun  is  setting.*" 


•  EXERCISE  51, 


.^Vxi^<...^^^ 


Do  any  of  the  sentences  of  the  following  paragraphs 
strike  you  as  pompous  and  over-important,  considering 
the  subject?     Make  them  loose  and  note  the  effect. 

1.  I  consider  this  mighty  structure  [the  Great  Pyramid]  as  a 
monument  of  the  insufficiency  of  human  enjoyments.  2.  A  king 
whose  power  is  unlimited,  and  whose  treasures  surmount  all  real 
and  imaginary  wants,  is  compelled  to  solace,  by  the  erection  of  a 
pyramid,  the  satiety  of  dominion  and  tastelessness  of  pleasures, 
and  to  amuse  the  tediousness  of  declining  life,  by  seeing  thousands 
laboring  without  end,  and  one  stone,  for  no  purpose,  laid  upon 
another.  3.  Whoever  thou  art  that,  not  content  with  a  moderate 
condition,  imaginest  happiness  in  royal  magnificence,  and  dreamest 
that  command  of  riches  can  feed  the  appetite  of  novelty  with 
perpetual  gratifications,  survey  the  Pyramids,  and  confess  thy 
folly ! 

1  1.  And  the  love  of  our  own  language,  w^hat  is  it  in  fact  but  the 

//^  love  of  our  country  expressing  itself  in  one  particular  direction  ? 
2.  If  the  great  acts  of  that  nation  to  which  we  belong  are  precious 
to  us,  if  we  feel  ourselves  made  greater  by  their  greatness,  sum- 
moned to  a  nobler  life  by  the  nobleness  of  Englishmen  who  have 
already  lived  and  died,  and  bequeathed  to  us  a  name  which  must 


kM^L 


Row  to  Say  It  167 

not  by  us  be  made  less,  w^j^  exploits  of  theirs  can  well  be  nobler, 
what  can  more  clearly  point  out  their  native  land  and  ours  as 
having  fulfilled  a  glorious  past,  as  being  destined  for  a  glorious 
future,  than  that  they  should  have  acquired  for  themselves  and 
for  those  who  come  after  them  a  clear,  a  strong,  an  harmonious, 
a  noble  language?  3.  For  all  this  bears  witness  to  corresponding 
merits  in  those  that  speak  it,  to  clearness  of  mental  vision,  to 
strength,  to  harmony,  to  nobleness  in  them  that  have  gradually 
formed  and  shaped  it  to  be  the  utterance  of  their  inmost  life  and 
being. 

4.  To  know  of  this  language  the  stages  which  it  has  gone 
through,  Uhe  quarters  from  which  its  riches  have  been  derived,  the 
gains  which  it  is  npw  making,  the  perils  which  have  threatened  or 
are  threatening  it,;  the  losses  which  it  has  sustained^the  latent 
capacities  which  may  yet  be  in  it  waiting  to  be  evoked,'  the  points 
in  which  it  is  superior  to,  in  which  it  colnes  short  of,  other  tongues, 
all  this  may  well  be  the  object  of  worthy  ambition  to  every  one  of 
us.  5.  So  may  we  hope  to  be  ourselves  guardians  of  its  purity 
and  not  corrupters  of  it ;  to  introduce,  it  may  be,  others  into  an 
intelligent  knowledge  of  that  with  which  we  shall  have  our- 
selves more  than  a  merely  superficial  acquaintance ;  to  bequeath 
it  to  those  who  come  after  us  not  worse  than  we  received  it 
ourselves. 

EXERCISE  52.  -:^ 

Discover  the  sentence  in  the  first  selection  following^ 
and  the  two  sentences  in  the  second  selection,  that  are 
nnduly  loose.     Ee-write  the  three  sentences. 

The  lettuce  is  to  me  a  most  interesting  study.  Lettuce  is  like 
conversation:  it  must  be  fresh  and  crisp,  so  sparkling  that  you 
can  scarcely  notice  the  bitter  in  it.  Lettuce,  like  most  talkers,  is, 
however,  apt  to  run  rapidly  to  seed.  Blessed  is  that  sort  which 
comes  to  a  head,  and  so  remains,  like  aTew  people  I  know;  growing 
more  solid,  and  satisfactory,  and  tender  at  the  same  time,  and 
whiter  at  the  centre,  and  crisp  in  their  maturity.  \  Lettuce,  like 
conversation,  requires  a  good  deal  of  oil,  to  avoid  friction  and 
keep  the  company  smooth :  a  pinch  of  Attic  salt,  a  dash  of  pepper, 


168  Composition-JRhetoric, 

a  quantity  of  mustard  and  vinegar,  by  all  means,  but  so  mixed 
that  you  will  notice  no  sharp  contrasts,  and  a  trifle  of  sugar.  You 
can  put  anything,  and  the  more  things  the  better,  into  salad,  as 
into  a  conversation,  but  everything  depends  upon  the  skill  of 
mixing.  I  feel  that  I  am  in  the  best  society  when  I  am  with 
lettuce.     It  is  the  select  circle  of  vegetables. 

About  this  time  I  met  with  an  odd  volume  of  The  Spectator. 
I  had  never  before  seen  any  of  them.  I  bought  it,  read  it  over 
and  over,  and  was  much  delighted  with  it.  I  thought  the  writing 
excellent,  and  wished  if  possible  to  imitate  it.  With  that  view  I 
took  some  of  the  papers,  and  making  short  hints  of  the  sentiments 
in  each  sentence,  laid  them  by  a  few  days,  and  then,  without  look- 
ing at  the  book,  tried  to  complete  the  papers  again,  by  expressing 
each  hinted  sentiment  at  length,  and  as  fully  as  it  had  been 
expressed  before,  in  any  suitable  words  that  should  occur  to  me. 
Then  I  compared  my  Spectator  with  the  original,  discovered  some 
of  my  faults,  and  corrected  them. '  But  T  found  I  wanted  a  stock 
of  words,  or  a  readiness  in  recolle'cting  and  using  them,  which  I 
thought  I  should  have  acquired  before  that  time,  if  I  had  gone  on 
making  verses ;  since  the  continual  search  for  words  of  the  same 
import,  but  of  different  length  to  suit  the  measure,  or  of  different 
sound  for  the  rhyme,  would  have  laid  me  under  a  constant  necessity 
of  searching  for  variety,  and  also  have  tgiided  to  fix  that  variety 
in  my  mind,  and  make  me  master  of  it.  'Therefore  I  took  some 
of  the  tales  in  The  Spectator,  and  turned  them  into  verse ;  and, 
after  a  time,  when  I  had  pretty  well  forgotten  the  prose,  turned 
them  back  again. 

I  also  sometimes  jumbled  my  collection  of  hints  into  confusion, 
and  after  some  weeks  endeavored  to  reduce  them  into  the  best 
order  before  I  began  to  form  the  full  sentences  and  complete  the 
subject.  This  was  to  teach  me  method  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  thoughts.  By  comparing  my  work  with  the  original,  I  dis- 
covered many  faults,  and  corrected  them;  but  I  sometimes  had 
the  pleasure  to  fancy  that,  in  certain  particulars  of  small  conse- 
quence, I  had  been  fortunate  enough  to  improve  the  method  or 
the  language,  and  this  encouraged  me  to  think  that  I  might  in 
time  come  to  be  a  ^olerable  English  writer,  of  which  I  was 
extremely  ambitious. 


U 


How  to  Say  It.  169 

EXERCISE  53.     V^^fli^ 

In  the  first  selection  following,  fifteen  sentences  out  of  a 
total  of  twenty-six  show  the  same  plan,  consisting  of  two 
principal  statements  joined  by  the  word  "and."  By  what 
changes  in  punctuation  or  construction  could  some  of  these 
"  ands  "  be  dispensed  with  ? 

Eevise  and  re-write  the  second  selection  so  as  to  avoid 
the  frequent  use  of  the  word  "  but/'  and  break  up  the  same- 
ness of  structure. 

The  apartment  assigned  to  Cardinal  Chigi  was  subdivided  into  • 
three  smaller  ones,  the  largest  of  which  was  appropriated  to  the 
bedchamber  of  the  Cardinal,  the  two  others  to  his  attendants. 
These  apartments  communicated  with  each  other,  and  only  one 
opened  upon  the  centre  corridor  running  down  the  Hall.  The 
Cardinal  retired  early  to  his  own  chamber,  and  most  of  the  other 
Cardinals  did  the  same.  A  profound  silence  reigned  in  the  Con- 
clave ;  if  any  of  the  attendants  still  stirred  they  were  velvet-shod, 
and  the  floors  and  walls,  lined  with  velvet,  prevented  the  least 
sound  from  being  heard. 

Ingiesant  remained  alone  in  the  outermost  of  the  three  apart- 
ments, and  determined  to  keep  his  faculties  on  the  alert.  For 
some  reason,  however,  either  the  fatigue  of  the  long  confinement 
or  the  deathlike  stillness  of  the  night,  a  profound  drowsiness 
overpowered  him,  and  he  continually  sank  into  a  doze.  He  tried 
to  read,  but  the  page  floated  before  his  eyes,  and  it  was  only  by 
continually  rising  and  pacing  the  small  chamber  that  he  kept 
himself  from  sinking  into  a  deep  sleep. 


Ingiesant  had  sat  down  again,  and  had  fallen  once  more  into  a 
slight  doze,  when  suddenly,  from  no  apparent  cause,  his  drowsiness 
left  him,  and  he  became  intensely  and  almost  painfully  awake. 
The  silence  around  him  was  the  same  as  before,  but  a  violent 
agitation  and  excitement  disturbed  his  mind,  and  an  overpowering 
apprehension  of  some  approaching  existence,  inimical  to  himself, 


170  Composition- Rhetoric, 

aroused  his  faculties  to  an  acute  perception,  and  braced  his  nerves 
to  a  supreme  effort.  In  another  moment,  this  apprehension,  at 
first  merely  mental,  became  perceptible  to  the  sense,  and  he  could 
hear  a  sound.  It  was,  as  it  were,  the  echo  of  a  low  faint  creeping 
movement,  the  very  ghost  of  a  sound.  Whence  it  came,  Inglesant 
could  not  determine,  but  it  was  from  without  the  apartment  in 
which  he  sat.  Ko  longer  able  to  remain  passive,  he  rose,  drew 
back  the  velvet  curtain  that  screened  the  entrance  from  the  corri- 
dor, opened  the  door  silently,  and  went  out. 

The  corridor  was  lighted  here  and  there  along  its  great  length 
by  oil  lamps  suspended  before  every  third  door  of  the  Cardinals' 
rooms;  but  the  dark  and  massive  hangings,  the  loftiness  of  the 
hall  overhead,  and  the  dimness  of  the  lamps  themselves,  caused 
the  light  to  be  misty  and  uncertain,  as  in  a  confused  and  troubled 
dream.  One  of  these  lamps  was  suspended  immediately  above 
the  door  at  which  Inglesant  had  appeared,  and  he  stood  in  its  full 
light,  being  himself  much  more  distinctly  seen  than  he  w^as  himself 
able  to  see  anything.  He  was  richly  dressed  in  dark  velvet,  after 
the  French  fashion,  and  in  the  uncertain  light  his  resemblance  to 
his  murdered  brother  was,  in  this  dress,  very  great.  He  held  a 
slight  and  jewelled  dagger  in  his  hand. 

As  he  paused  under  the  suspended  lamp  the  sound  he  had  heard 
before  developed  itself  into  low  stealthy  footsteps  approaching 
down  the  corridor,  apparently  on  the  opposite  side,  and  the  next 
moment  a  figure,  more  like  a  phantom  thrown  on  the  opposite 
wall  than  a  substantial  being,  glided  into  sight.  It  was  shrouded 
in  flowing  drapery,  and  kept  so  close  to  the  heavy  hangings  that 
it  seemed  almost  the  waving  of  their  folds  stirred  by  some  un- 
known breeze.  Though  it  passed  down  the  opposite  side,  it  kept 
its  attention  turned  in  Inglesant's  direction,  and  almost  at  the 
same  moment  at  which  he  appeared  through  the  opening  door  it 
saw  him  and  instantly  stopped.  It  lost  its  stealthy  motion  and 
assumed  an  attitude  of  intense  and  speechless  terror,  such  as  In- 
glesant had  never  seen  depicted  in  a  human  being,  and  by  this 
attitude  revealed  itself  more  completely  to  his  gaze.  The  hood 
which  shaded  its  face  fell  partly  back  and  displayed  features  pale 
as  death,  and  lustrous  eyes  dilated  with  horror;  and  Inglesant 
could  see  that  it  held  some  nameless  weapon  in  its  hand.  As  it 
stood,  arrested  in  its  purpose,  breathless  and  uncertain,  it  seemed 


How  to  Say  It.  171 

to  Iiiglesaiit  a  phantom  murderer,  or  rather  the  phantom  of  murder 
itself,  as  though  nothing  short  of  the  murderous  principle  sufficed 
any  longer  to  dog  his  steps. 

This  strange  figure  confronted  Inglesant  for  some  seconds,  during 
which  neither  stirred,  each  with  his  eyes  riveted  upon  the  other, 
each  with  his  weapon  in  his  hand.  Then  the  phantom  murmured 
in  an  inarticulate  and  broken  voice,  that  faltered  upon  the  air  as 
though  tremulous  with  horror,  "  It  is  himself !  He  has  taken  the 
dagger  from  his  bleeding  wound !  " 

Then,  as  it  had  come,  it  glided  backwards  along  the  heavy 
drapery,  becoming  more  and  more  lost  in  its  folds,  till,  at  first 
apparently  but  the  shadow  of  a  shade,  it  faded  more  and  more 
into  the  hanging  darkness,  and  vanished  out  of  sight. 

The  agreeable  man  is  always  courteous  and  considerate.  He 
keeps  out  of  disputes  and  contentions,  and  seeks  to  give  utterance 
only  to  pleasant  things,  Jiit  if  driven  to  contradict,  does  so  in  an 
amiable  manner.  He  may  or  may  not  be  as  good  and  faithful  at 
heart  as  the  gruff  disputant,  who  is  apt  to  be  boastful  of  his  frank- 
ness, ^ut  the  quality  that  makes  him  agreeable  is  his  cultivated 
manner.  Some  people  go  so  far  as  to  deprecate  politeness  as  a 
concession  to  hypocrisy,  J}nt  it  is  really  a  manifestation  of  con- 
sideration for  others.  It  is,  of  course,  cultivated  by  hypocrites, 
and  those  who  are  excessively  polite  may  be  suspected  of  insin- 
cerity; ^lii  that  is  not  a  good  reason  why  sincere  people  should 
not  use  it  to  make  themselves  agreeable. 


EXERCISE  64. 

Ee-construct  the  following  paragraph  so  as  to  avoid  begin- 
ning so  many  of  the  sentences  with  "  he  " :  — 

1.  He  was  an  old  bachelor,  of  a  small  independent  income, 
which,  by  careful  management,  was  sufficient  for  all  his  wants. 
2.-Jft  revolvWNmrough  the  family  system  like  a  vagrant  comet 
in  its  orbit ;  sanaepimes  visiti^gj&ne  branch,  and  sometimes  another 
quite  remote ;  ^^^k^ls^often  the  case  with  gentlemen  of  extensive 
connections  and  small  fortunes  in  England^  3.  He^md  a  chirping, 
buoyant  disposition,  always  enjoying  the  present  moment;   and 


172  Composition-Rhetoric. 

his  frequent  change  of  scene  and  company  prevented  his  acquiring 
those  rusty,  unaccommodating  habits  with  which  old  bachelors 
are  so  uncharitably  charged.  4. j^^^as  a  complete  family  chroni- 
cle, being  versed  in  the  genealogy,  history,  and  intermarriages  of 
the  whole  house  of  Bracebridge,  which  made  him  a  great  favorite 
with  the  old  folks;  he  was  the  beau  of  all  the  elder  ladies  and 
superannuated  spinsters,  among  whom  he  was  habitually  considered 
rather  a  young  fellow;  and  he  was  master  of  the  revels  among 
the  children ;  so  that  there  was  not  a  more  popular  being  in  the 
sphere  in  which  he  moved  than  Mr.  Simon  Bracebridge.  5.  Of 
late  years  he  had  resided  almost  entirely  with  the  squire,  to  whom 
he  had  become  a  factotum,  and  whom  he  particularly  delighted  by 
jumping  with  his  humor  in  respect  of  old  times,  and  by  having 
a  scrap  of  song  to  suit  every  occasion.  6.  We  had  presently-  a 
specimen  of  his  last-mentioned  talent,  for  no  sooner  was  supper 
removed,  and  spiced  wines  and  other  beverages  peculiar  to  the 
season  introduced,  than  Master  Simon  was  called  on  for  a  good 
old  Christmas  song.  7.  He  bethought  himself  for  a  hiomerit,"atri^^' 
then,  with  a  sparkle  of  the  eye,  and  a  voice  that  was  by  no  means 
bad,  except  that  it  ran  occasionally  into  a  falsetto,  like  the  notes 
of  a  split  reed,  he  quavered  forth  a  quaint  old  ditty. 


EXERCISE  55. 
"What  sameness  of  structure  do  you  notice  at  the  close  of 
the  sentences  of  each  of  the  following  paragraphs  ?    Eevise 
in  the  interest  of  variety. 

It  might  reasonably  be  supposed  that  good  people  would  be 
agreeable  and  bad  people  disagreeable,  but  this  is^  by  no  mean^  ^a, 
fixed  rule.     There  are  many  notable  exceptionsAfc«d  people  b"4l{^ 
often  delightful  companions.     They  study  to  pease,  thereby  cfcy- 
^^$gMff^  up  their  faults  of  character.     There  is  no  reason,  however, 
\       why  good  people  should  not  follow  their  example  in  this  respect, 
^/V^ adding  attractive  manners  to  their  other  virtues.     When  they  act 
naturally,  they  are  agreeable*  but  some  good  men  with  warm  sym- 
pathies and  great  kindness  of  heart  put  on  a  gruif,  repellent  man- 
"^^)  s^iJ^i^e  ^  ^^^'^  that  it  is  necessary  for  their  own  protection^, 
There  are  others  who  at  heart  are  good  friends,  yet  make  them- 


How  to  Say  It.  ,-  173 

selves  disagreeable  to  those  they  love,  hsam%  a  bad  Kabit  bf  positive 
contradiction.  All  of  us  have  a  great  deal  of  self-love,  and  we 
cannot  regard  as  agreeable  one  who  continually  differs  with  and 
contradicts  us,  especially  if  he  does  so  in  an  offensive  way. 

A  Chicago  newspaper  publishes  an  account  of  a  novel  experi- 
ment which  is  about  to  be  tried  in  that  city.  InNnj;ief,  it  is  the  m 
application  to  street-railway  traffic  of  the  Hungarian  zon§**systerrf'*^^^^ 
py  wmcn  passengers  may  travel  for  one  cent  a  mile.  A  street- 
railway  company  has  obtained  a  charter  which  gives  it  the  right 
to  build  lines  over  certain  streets  of  Chicago.  The  passenger  may 
pay  cas"h  or  provide  himself  with  the  coupon  tickets  which  are 
issued  by  the  company.  The  first  mile  from  the  downtown  ter- 
minus costs  one  cent,  and  one  cent  extra  is  charged  for  each  addi- 
tional mile  or  fraction  thereof  which  the  passenger  may  travel. 
In  case  a  passenger  boards  a  car  at  a  distance  from  the  terminus, 
and  alights  before  it  reaches  its  destination,  he  is  charged  one 
cent  a  mile  for  the  space  over  which  he  rides.  The  advocates  of 
this  plan  argue  that  a  rate  is  thus  established  which  is  equitable 
and  fair  to  all  concerned.  It  is  maintained  that  such  payment 
will  bring  in  proper  revenue  to  the  companies  and  that  the  down- 
town passenger  is  not  continually  paying  for  the  long  rides  which 
the  suburban  resident  takes.  The  plan  is  one  which  has  been 
thoroughly  worked  out  in  European  cities,  and  it  is  ready  for 
adoption  in  America. 

The  boy  who  chafes  under  rules  and  discipline,  longing  to  be 
free,  should  be  reminded  of  the  obligations  of  the  social  state,  and 
admonished  to  prolong  as  much  as  possible  the  freedom  and  enjoy- 
ments of  youth ;  for  that  which  is  regarded  as  a  measure  of  inde- 
pendence must  be  paid  for  in  a  way  which  he  does  not  now  suspect. 
The  youth  who  is  wilful  and  determines  to  break  from  authority 
soon  learns  that  he  has  broken  with  a  supporter  as  well  as  a  ruler; 
for  if  he  would  have  his  own  way  he  must  support  himself,  and  in 
doing  so  he  puts  himself  under  the  rule  of  new  task-masters.  The 
wisest  thing  w^e  can  do  is  cheerfully  to  make  the  best  of  our 
situation,  for,  struggle  as  we  may,  we  cannot  achieve  complete 
independence.  By  curbing  our  appetites  and  desires  so  that  we 
shall  want  only  those  things  that  may  be  attainable  through  reason- 
able effort,  and  by  respecting  authority  as  a  necessary  exercise  of 


Composition-Rhetoric , 

power,  we  should  cheerfully  make  our  share  of  the  mutual  sacri- 
fices which  social  conditions  require  to  be  made. 

It  would  be  thought  a  hard  government  that  should  tax  its 
people  one-tenth  part  of  their  time  to  be  employed  in  its  service ; 
but  idleness  taxes  many  of  us  much  more:  sloth,  by  bringing 
on  diseases,  absolutely  shortens  life.  "  Sloth,  like  rust,  consumes 
faster  than  labor  wears;  while  the  used  key  is  always  bright," 
as  Poor  Kichard  says.  "But  dost  thou  love  life?  then  do  not 
squander  time,  for  that  is  the  stuff  life  is  made  of,"  as  Poor  Richard 
says.  How  much  more  than  is  necessary  do  we  spend  in  sleep! 
forgetting  that  "the  sleeping  fox  catches  no  poultry,"  and  that 
"  there  will  be  sleeping  enough  in  the  grave,"  as  Poor  Richard  says. 


EXERCISE  56.1aA^* 

Write  about  300  wor^  on  one  of  the  following  topics.  Criti- 
cise your  work  carefully  by  asking  the  following  questions:  (1) 
Is  there  variety  of  sentence-beginnings?  (2)  Is  there  variety  of 
structure?  (3)  Is  there  variety  of  sentence-endings?  Bring  both 
your  original  and  amended  work  to  class,  prepared  to  give  reasons 
for  the  changes  you  have  made. 

1.  The  story  of  Paul  Eevere's  ride. 

2.  A  description  ^^  ^  ^^MTltry  RtOTP     — 
■   3.    'Ae  ninth  inning. 

4.  A  ride  on  a  raft. 

5.  The  best  route  to  the  Arctic  regions. 

6.  How  our  reading  circle  is  conducted. 

7.  The  story  of  Evangeline. 

8.  Arrangements  for  a  camping  party. 

9.  How  shall  railway  cars  be  heated  ?  ^ 

10.  Advantages  of  learning  a  trade. 

11.  How  the  fashions  originate. 

12.  The  most  important  discovery  of  the  last  quarter- 
century.  '        ^  x?? 

13.  Scientific  kite-flying.  V; 

14.  Artificial  flies.  -  '^^  ■ 


'S, 


i 


3 


How  to  Say  It.  175 

LESSON  24. 


Uses  of  Periodic  Sentences, 


A  sentence  is  periodic  in  which  the  thought  is  suspended 
or  kept  incomplete  until  the  end  is  reached.  The  following 
paragraph  is  made  up  of  periodic  sentences  :  in  none  of  them 
can  a  period  be  inserted  without  destroying  the  meaning  of 
the  part  that  precedes  and  the  part  that  follows  the  inter- 
ruption :  — 

(  l|  Never,  perhaps,  was  the  change  which  the  progress  of  civili- 
zation has  produced  in  the  art  of  war  more  strikingly  illustrated 
than  on  that  day.  2.  Ajax  beating  down  the  Trojan  leader  with 
a  rock  which  two  ordinary  men  could  scarcely  lift,  Horatius  de- 
fending the  bridge  against  an  army,  Richard  the  Lion-hearted 
spurring  along  the  whole  Saracen  line  without  finding  an  enemy 
to  withstand  his  assault,  Robert  Bruce  crushing  with  one  blow  the 
helmet  and  head  of  Sir  Henry  Bohun  in  sight  of  the  whole  array 
of  England  and  Scotland,  —  such  are  thtf  heroes  of  a  dark  age. 
3.  Li  such  an  age,  bodily  vigor  JsJihe  most  indispensable  qualifi- 
cation of  a  warrior.  4^  At  Landen,  two  poor  sickly  beings  who, 
m  a  rude  state  of  society,  would  have  been  regarded  as  too  puny 
to  bear  any  part  in  combats,  were  the  souls  of  two  great  armies. 
5.  In  some  heathen  countries  they  would  have  been  exposed  while 
infants.  ^^  In  Christendom  they  would,  six  hundred  years  earlier, 
have  been  sent  to  some  quiet  cloister.  7.  But  their  lot  had  fallen 
oi:ua-time  when  men  had  discovered  thfl^-  ^-^^^  strength  of  the  mus- 
cles is  far  inferior  in  value  to  the  strength  of  the  mind.  8.  Jt  is 
probable  that,  among  the  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  soldiers 
who  were  marshalled  round  Neerwinden  under  all  the  standards 
of  Western  Europe,  the  two  feeblest  in  body  were  the  hunch- 
backed dwarf  who  urged  forward  the  fiery  onset  of  France,  and 
the  asthmatic  skeleton  who  covered  the  slow  retreat  of  England. 
—  Macaulay:  History  of  England,  chap.  XX. 

The  paragraph  of  periodic  sentences  is,  in  effect,  more 
like  oratory,  or  declamation,  than  like  ordinary  con  versa- 


176  Composition- Rhetoric , 

tion.  The  manner  of  statement,  especially  if  the  sentences 
are  somewhat  long,  is  dignified  and  impressive.  The  reader 
feels,  as  he  reads,  that  the  subject  is  weighty  and  important ; 
that  the  parts  of  each  sentence  have  been  purposely  arranged 
as  he  finds  them.  He  is  compelled  to  pay  close  attention, 
for  he  finds  that  the  principal  verb  of  each  sentence  is  with- 
held until  the  modifying  phrases  and  clauses  are  brought 
in.  He  must  wait  for  the  full  meaning  until  the  end  of  .the 
sentence ;  thus  his  interest  is  stimulated.  When  the  impor- 
tant word,  or  element,  that  has  been  reserved  to  the  latter 
part,  is  reached,  the  force  and  the  satisfying  completeness 
of  the  whole  sentence  are  appreciated. 

If  the  poetical  prediction,  uttered  a  few  years  before  his  birth, 
be  true ;  if  indeed  it  be  designed  by  Providence  that  the  grandest 
exhibition  of  human  character  and  human  affairs  shall  be  made 
on  this  theatre  of  the  western  world ;  if  it  be  true  that 

**  The  first  four  acts  already  past, 
A  fifth  shall  close  the  drama  with  the  day ; 
Time's  noblest  offspring  is  the  last ;  " 

how  could  this  imposing,  swelling,  final  scene  be  appropriately 
opened,  how  could  its  intense  interest  be  adequately  sustained, 
but  by  the  introduction  of  just  such  a  character  as  our  Wash- 
ington ?  —  Webster  :  Character  of  Washington. 

And  now,  gentlemen,  standing  as  I  do  in  this  relation  for  the 
last  time  in  your  presence  and  that  of  my  fellow-citizens,  about  to 
surrender  forever  a  station  full  of  difficulty,  of  labor,  and  tempta- 
tion, in  which  I  have  been  called  to  very  arduous  duties,  affecting 
the  rights,  property,  and  at  times  the  liberty  of  others;  concerning 
which  the  perfect  line  of  rectitude,  though  desired,  was  not  always 
to  be  clearly  discerned ;  in  which  great  interests  have  been  placed 
within  my  control,  under  circumstances  in  which  it  would  have 
been  easy  to  advance  private  ends  and  sinister  projects;  —  under 
these  circumstances,  I  inquire,  as  I  have  a  right  to  inquire,  —  for 
in  the  recent  contest  insinuations  have  been  cast  against  my  integ- 
rity,—  in  this  long  management  of  your  affairs,  whatever  errors 
have  been  committed,  —  and  doubtless  there  have  been  many,  — 


How  to  Say  It,  177 

have  you  found  in  nie  anything  selfish,  anything  personal,  any- 
thing mercenary?  In  the  simple  language  of  an  ancient  seer,  I 
say,  "  Behold,  here  I  am ;  witness  against  me.  Whom  have  I 
defrauded?  Whom  have  I  oppressed?  At  whose  hands  have 
I  received  any  bribe?"  —  Josiah  Quincy:  Address  on  laying  down 
the  Mayoralty  of  Boston. 

Periodic  sentences  are  sometimes  found  one  after  another 
through  a  whole  paragraph  of  a  highly  wrought  discourse. 
More  often,  however,  they  alternate  at  more  or  less  regular 
intervals  with  sentences  of  other  kinds.  The  following 
selection  contains  nine  sentences  of  which  three  (^3,  5,  8) 
are  periodic :  — 

1.  Great  actions  and  striking  occurrences,  having  excited  a  tem- 
porary admiration,  often  pass  away  and  are  forgotten,  because  they 
leave  no  lasting  results  aifecting  the  prosperity  and  happiness  of 
communities.  2.  Such  is  freg[uently  the  fortune  of  the  most  brill- 
iant military  achievements.  3.;  Of  the  ten  thousand  battles  which 
have  been  fought ;  of  all  the  fields  fertilized  with  carnage ;  of  the 
banners  which  have  been  bathed  in  blood;  of  the  warriors  who 
have  hoped  that  they  had  risen  from  the  field  of  conquest  to  a 
glory  as  bright  and  as  durable  as  the  stars,  how  few  that  continue 
long  to  interest  mankind  !  4.  The  victory  of  yesterday  is  reversed 
by  the  defeat  of  to-day ;  the  star  of  military  glory,  rising  like  a 
meteor,  like  a  meteor  has  fallen ;  disgrace  and  disaster  hang  on 
the  heels  of  conquest  and  renown ;  victor  and  vanquished  presently 
pass  away  to  oblivion,  and  the  world  goes  on  in  its  course,  with 
thaloss  only  of  so  many  lives  and  so  much  treasure. 

(5/)  But  if  this  be  frequently  or  generally  the  fortune  of  military 
achievements,  it  is  not  always  so.  6.  There  are  enterprises,  mili- 
tary as  well  as  civil,  which  sometimes  check  the  current  of  events, 
give  a  new  turn  to  human  affairs,  and  transmit  their  consequences 
through  ages.  7.  We  see  their  importance  intheir  results,  and 
call  them  great,  because  great  things  follow.  ^JThere  have  been 
battles  which  have  fixed  the  fate  of  nations.  9.  These  come  down 
to  us  in  history  with  a  solid  and  permanent  interest,  not  created 
by  a  display  of  glittering  armor,  the  rush  of  adverse  battalions, 
the  sinking  and  rising  of  pennons,  the  flight,  the  pursuit,  and  the 


178  Composition- Rhetoric. 

victory ;  but  by  their  effect  in  advancing  or  retarding  human 
knowledge,  in  overthrowing  or  establishing  despotism,  in  extend- 
ing or  destroying  human  happiness.  —  Webster. 

Periodic  sentences  show  a  more  regular  and  formal  struct- 
ure than  loose  sentences.  The  periodic  sentence  is  arranged 
to  secure  suspense ;  accordingly  the  structure  of  a  periodic 
sentence  will  show  devices  for  withholding  the  full  meaning 
and  for  arousing  expectation.  Thus  in  the  paragraph  of 
periodic  sentences  quoted  at  the  beginning  of  this  lesson, 
suspense  is  secured  in  sentence  1  by  the  use  of  compara- 
tive words  (never  —  more  —  than)  ;  in  2,  by  the  use  of  a 
summarizing  word  (such)  after  particulars  have  been  accu- 
mulated by  means  of  the  participles  (heating  —  defending, 
etc.) ;  in  3,  by  putting  a  phrase  first  and  bringing  in  the  logi- 
cal subject  {qualification)  after  the  copula  {is)  ;  in  4,  5,  and  6 
by  putting  a  phrase  first.  In  7,  the  demonstrative  article 
(a)  anticipates  the  clause  {when),  the  transitive  verb  {dis- 
covered) needs  an  object  (here  the  ^/ia^clause),  and  the 
object  clause  is  prolonged  by  the  use  of  a  comparative 
{inferior) ;  in  8,  the  word  it  anticipates  all  that  follows  the 
word  probable;  and  the  part  of  sentence  8  after  the  word 
probable  is  suspended  by  the  device  used  in  sentence  3. 

Other  devices  for  securing  suspense  will  be  seen  in  the 
following  sentences :  in  sentence  2,  suspense  is  secured  by 
putting  the  concessive  clause  {though)  first;  in  4,  by  the 
as-clause,  and,  later,  by  the  words  no  longer  —  but;  in  6, 
by  the  position  of  the  loAeTvclauses  ;  in  7,  by  the  use  of 
words  that  require  something  to  follow  {avow,  in  preference 
to) ;  in  8,  by  the  four  /or-phrases  coming  first ;  in  11,  by 
the  introductory  tZ-clause ;  in  the  two  parts  of  13,  by  plac- 
ing the  participles  first ;  in  16,  by  the  use  and  position  of 
the  correlatives  {whether  —  or). 

1.  The  American  Declaration  of  Independente  was  the  begin- 
ning of  new  ages.     2.  Though  it  had  been  invited,  expected,  and 


How  to  Say  It,  179 

prepared  for,  its  adoption  suddenly  changed  the  contest  from  a 
war  for  the  redress  of  grievances  to  an  effort  at  the  creation  of  a 
self-governing  commonwealth.  3.  It  disembarrassed  the  people  of 
the  United  States  from  the  legal  fiction  of  owning  a  king  against 
whom  they  were  in  arms,  brushed  away  forever  the  dreamy  illusion 
of  their  reconcilement  to  the  dominion  of  Britain,  and  for  the  first 
time  set  before  them  a  well-defined,  single,  and  inspiring  purpose. 
4^-^s  ^^^  youthful  nation  took  its  seat  among  the  powers  of  the 
earth,  its  desire  was  nolouger  for  the  restoration  of  the  past,  but 
turned  with  prophetic  promise  towards  the  boundless  future. 
5.  Hope  whispered  the  assurance  of  unheard-of  success  in  the  pur- 
suit of  public  happiness  through  faith  in  natural  equality  and  the 
rights  of  man.  —  Bancroft. 

6.  When  your  lordships  look  at  the  papers  transmitted  to  us 
from  America,  when  you  consider  their  decency,  firmness,  and 
wisdom,  you  cannot  but  respect  their  cause  and  wish  to  make  it 
your  own.  7.  I  must  declare  and  avow  that,  in  the  master  states 
of  the  world,  I  know  not  the  people,  nor  the  senate  who,  under 
such  a  complication  of  difficult  circumstances,  can  stand  in  prefer- 
enc^JjUthe  delegates  of  America  in  General  Congress  at  Philadel- 
phia.  8.  _For  genuine  sagacity,.jQX^singular  moderation,  igr^solid 
wisdom,  manly  spirit,  sublime  sentiments,  and  simplicity  of  lan- 
guage, for  everything  respectable  and  honorable,  they  stand  un- 
rivalled. —  Chatham. 

9.  A  great  deal  must  be  allowed  to  Pope  for  the  age  in  which  he 
lived,  and  not  a  little,  I  think,  for  the  influence  of  Swift.  10.  In 
his  own  province  he  still  stands  unapproachably  alone.  11.  !;£..  to 
be  the  greatest  satirist  of  individual  men,  rather  than  of  human 
nature,  if  to  be  the  highest  expression  which  the  life  of  the  court 
and  the  ball-room  has  ever  found  in  verse,  if  to  have  added  more 
phrases  to  our  language  than  any  other  but  Shakespeare,  if  to 
have  charmed  four  generations  make  a  man  a  great  poet  —  then 
he  is  one.  12.  He  was  the  chief  founder  of  an  artificial  style  of 
writing,  which  in  his  hands  was  living  and  powerful,  because  he 
used  it  to  express  artificial  modes  of  thinking  and  an  artificial 
state  of  society.  13.  Measured  by  any  high  standard  of  imagina- 
tion, he  will  be  /ound  wanting;  tried  by  any  test  of  wit  he  is 
unrivalled.  —  Lowell:  My  Study  Windows,  ^ZZ, 


180  Composition-Rhetoric, 

14.  At  that  period  I  had  the  fortune  to  find  myself  in  perfect 
concurrence  with  a  large  majority  in  this  House.  15.  Bowing 
under  that  high  authority,  and  penetrated  with  the  sharpness  and 
strength  of  that  early  impression,  I  have  continued  ever  since, 
without  the  least  deviation,  in  my  original  sentiments.  16. 
Whether  this  be  owing  to  an  obstinate  perseverance  in  error,  or 
to  a  religious  adherence  to  what  appears  to  me  truth  and  reason, 
it  is  in  your  equity  to  judge.  —  Burke:  Conciliation  with  the 
Colonies. 

The  pupil  should  notice  carefully  the  methods  of  suspense 
employed  in  the  periodic  sentences  quoted  above  with  a  view 
to  using  these  methods  in  his  own  writing.  One  of  the  chief 
advantages  in  composing  periodic  sentences  arises  from  the 
fact  that  one  learns  how  to  place  phrases  and  clauses  prop- 
erly, and  how  to  manage  a  considerable  number  of  them  in 
the  same  sentence  when  this  is  necessary. 

Use  the  periodic  sentence  for  its  dignity,  complateness,  and 
structural  compactness.     Guard  against  the  over-importance  (bom-    \ 
bast)  which  a  series  of  periodic  sentences  may  produce  when  the     j 
subject  on  which  you  are  writing  is  simple  and  familiar, 

V  EXERCISE  57. 

^M    y*  Find,  by  counting,  the  proportion  of  periodic  to  the  total 
'^     X  number  of  sentences  in  three  pages  of  your  school  history. 


8.>5hJJ^ 


EXERCISE  58. 

Turn  sentence  number  1  in  the  following  to  periodic  form, 
and  note  the  effect.  In  the  second  selection  turn  sentences 
5,  6,  and  7  to  periodic  form.  Is  the  paragraph  improved 
thereby  ? 

1.  Our  principal  intellectual  ancestors  are,  no  doubt,  the  Jews, 
the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  and  the  Saxons,  and  we,  here  in  Europe, 
should  not  call  a  man  educated  or  enlightened  who  was  ignorant 


How  to  Say  It,  181 

of  the  debt  which  he  owes  to  his  intellectual  ancestors  in  Palestine, 
Greece,  Rome,  and  Germany.  2.  The  whole  past  history  of  the 
world  would  be  darkness  to  him,  and  not  knowing  what  those  who 
came  before  him  had  done  for  him,  he  would  probably  care  little 
to  do  anything  for  those  who  are  to  come  after  him.  3.  Life 
would  be  to  him  a  chain  of  sand,  while  it  ought  to  be  a  kind  of 
electric  chain  that  makes  our  hearts  tremble  and  vibrate  with  the 
most  ancient  thoughts  of  the  past  as  well  as  with  the  most  distant 
hopes  of  the  future. 

1.  Look  now  at  the  accomplished  man  of  letters.  He  sits  in  his 
quiet  study  with  clear  head,  sympathetic  heart,  and  lively  fancy. 
2.  The  walls  around  him  are  lined  with  books  on  every  subject, 
and  in  almost  every  tongue.  3.  He  is  indeed  a  man  of  magical 
powers,  and  these  books  are  his  magical  volumes  full  of  wonder- 
working spells.  4.  When  he  opens  one  of  these,  and  reads  with 
eye  and  soul  intent,  in  a  few  minutes  the  objects  around  him  fade 
from  his  senses,  and  his  soul  is  rapt  away  into  distant  regions,  or 
into  by-gone  times.  5.  It  may  be  a  book  descriptive  of  other 
lands ;  and  then  he  feels  himself,  perhaps,  amid  the  biting  frost 
a^nd  snowy  ice-hills  of  the  polar  winter,  or  in  the  fierce  heat  and 
luxuriant  vegetation  of  the  equator,  panting  up  the  steeps  of  the 
Alps  with  the  holiday  tourist,  or  exploring  the  mazes  of  the  Nile 
with  Livingstone  or  Baker.  6.  Or,  perchance,  it  may  be  a  history 
of  England;  and  then  the  tide  of  time  runs  back,  and  he  finds 
himself  among  our  stout-hearted  ancestors  ;  he  enters  heartily  into 
all  their  toils  and  struggles ;  he  passes  amid  the  fires  of  Smithfield 
at  the  Reformation ;  he  shares  in  all  the  wrangling,  and  dangers, 
and  suspense  of  the  Revolution ;  he  watches  with  eager  gaze  the 
steady  progress  of  the  nation,  until  he  sees  British  freedom  become 
the  envy  of  Europe,  and  British  enterprise  secure  a  foothold  in 
every  quarter  of  the  globe.  7.  Or  perhaps  the  book  may  be  one 
of  our  great  English  classics  —  Shakespeare,  Bacon,  or  Carlyle  — 
and  immediately  he  is  in  the  closest  contact  with  a  spirit  far  larger 
than  his  own :  his  mind  grasps  its  grand  ideas,  his  heart  imbibes 
its  glowing  sentiments,  until  he  finds  himself  dilated,  refined, 
inspired,  —  a  greater  and  a  nobler  being.  8.  Thus  does  this 
scholar's  soul  grow  and  extend  itself  until  it  lives  in  every  region 
of  the  earth  and  in  every  by-gone  age,  and  holds  the  most  intimate 


182  Composition-Rhetoric, 

intercourse  with  the  spirits  of  the  mighty  dead ;  and  thus,  though 
originally  a  frail  mortal  creature,  he  rises  toward  the  godlike 
attributes  of  omnipresence  and  omniscience. 


EXERCISE  59. 


sLui^' 


Point  out  the  means  of  suspense  employed  in  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

I  know  many  have  been  taught  to  think,  that  moderation, 
in  a  case  likg.JJiis,  is  a  sort  of  treason ;  and  that  all  arguments 
for  it  are  sufficiently  answered  by  railing  at  rebels  and  rebellion, 
and  by  charging  all  the  present,  or  future  miseries,  which  we  may 
suffer,  on  the  resistance  of  our  brethren.  But  I  would  wish  them, 
in  this  grave  matter,  and  if  peace  is  not  wholly  removed  from 
their  hearts,  to  consider  seriously,  first,  that  to  criminate  and 
recriminate  never  yet  was  the  road  to  reconciliation,  in  any  dif- 
ference amongst  men.  In  the  next  place,  it  would  be  right  to 
reflect,  that  the  American  English  (whom  they  may  abuse,  if  they 
think  it  honorable  to  revile  the  absent)  can,  as  things  now  stand, 
neither  be  provoked  at  our  railing,  nor  bettered  by  our  instruction. 
All  communication  is  cut  off  between  us,  but  this  we  know  with 
certainty,  that,  though  we  cannot  reclaim  them,  we  may  reform 
ourselves.  If  measures  of  peace  are  necessary,  they  must  begin 
somewhere ;  and  a  conciliatory  temper  must  precede  and  prepare 
every  plan  of  reconciliation.  Nor  do  I  conceive  that  we  suffer 
anything  by  thus  regulating  our  own  minds.  We  are  not  disarmed 
by  being  disencumbered  of  our  passions.  Declaiming  on  rebellion 
never  added  a  bayonet,  or  a  charge  of  powder,  to  your  military  force ; 
but  I  am  afraid  that  it  has  been  the  means  of  taking  up  many 
muskets  against  you.  —  Burke:  Letter  to  the  Sheriffs  of  Bristol. 

AU  this,  I  know  well  enough,  will  sound  wild  and  chimerical 
to  the  profane  herd  of  those  vulgar  and  mechanical  politicians, 
who  have  no  place  among  us;  a  sort  of  people  who  think  that 
nothing  exists  but  what  is  gross  and  material ;  and  who  therefore, 
far  from  being  qualified  to  be  directors  of  the  great  movement  of 
empire,  are  not  fit  to  turn  a  wheel  in  the  machine.  But  to  men 
truly  initiated  and  rightly  taught,  these  ruling  and  master  princi- 


How  to  Say  It,  183 

pies,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  such  men  as  I  have  mentioned,  have 
no  substantial  existence,  ^re  in  truth  everything,  and  all  in  all. 
Magnanimity  in  politics  i^  not  seldom  the  truest  wisdom ;  and  a 
great  empire  and  little  minds  go  ill  together.  If  we  are  conscious 
of  our  situation,  and  glow  with  zeal  to  fill  our  places  as  becomes 
our  station  and  ourselves,  we  ought  to  auspicate  all  our  public 
proceedings  on  America,  with  the  old  warning  of  the  church, 
Sursum  corda  !  We  ought  to  elevate  our  minds  to  the  greatness 
of  that  trust  to  which  the  order  of  Providence  has  called  us.  By 
ajdverting  to  the  dignity  of  this  high  calling,  our  ancestors  have 
turned  a  savage  wilderness  into  a  glorious  empire :  and  have  made 
the  most  extensive,  and  the  only  honorable  conquests,  not  by 
desti:eyiftg,  but  byj)TOmoting  the  wealth,  the  number,  the  happi^ 
ness  of  the  human  race.  Let  us  get  an  American  revenue  as  we 
have  got  an  American  empire.  English  privileges  have  made  it 
all  that  it  is ;  English  privileges  alone  will  make  it  all  it  can  be.  — 
Burke  :  Conciliation  with  the  Colonies. 

The  proposition  is  peace.  JJiiL^eace  through  the  medium  of 
war;  not  peace  to  be  hunted  through  the  labyrinth  of  intricate 
and  endless  negotiations ;  not  peace  to  arise  out  of  universal  dis- 
cord, fomented  from  principle,  in  all  parts  of  the  empire;  not 
peace  to  depend  on  the  juridical  determination  of  perplexing 
questions,  or  the  precise  marking  the  shadowy  boundaries  of  a 
complex  government.  It  is  simple  peace;  sought  in  its  natural 
course,  and  in  its  ordinary  haunts.  It  is  peace  sought  in  the  spirit 
of  peace ;  and  laid  in  principles  purely  pacific.  I  propose  by;^ 
removing  the  ground  of  the  difference,  and  by  restoring  the  former 
unsuspecting  confidence  of  the  colonies  in  tlTe  mother  country,  to 
give  permanent  satisfaction  to  your  people ;  and  (far  from  a 
scheme  of  ruling  by  discord)  to  reconcile  them  to  each  other  in 
the  same  act,  and  by  the  bond  of  the  very  same  interest  which 
reconciles  them  to  British  government.  —  Burke  :  Conciliation  with 
the  Colonies. 


EXERCISE  60. 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  methods  you  have  learned  by  which 
suspense  is  secured,  and  illustrate  each  method  by  an  origi- 
nal sentence. 


184  Composition-Rhetoric, 

\     \ 

EXERCISE  Jl.     \J^J-^* 

Introduce  as  great  variety  of  suspense  as  you  can  into  the 
following  paragraphs :  — 

1.  Douglass  was  essentially  a  great  man.      2.  Escaping  from 
slavery  when  he  was  twenty-one  years  old,  in  three  years  he  had 
begun,  in  a  Massachusetts  seaport  town,  to  be  a  lead^  of  hi^  race,        v 
and  an  orator  for  the  abolition  of  slavery.     3.  G(»rag^'^figranaJ^5^?^ 
he  stirred  the  moral  sense  of  the  English  people  which  so  often   ^^''^ 
compels  the  alleg^^iice  of  its  politiciaDS  and  statesmen  in  behalf        ^ 
of  moral  causes.    '4.'  Becoijiiug"  an  editor  as  well  as  an  orator,  he 
was  a  considerable  force  in  awakening  the  (hill  consoience  of  the? 
Northern  States.     5.  He  has  left  his  mark  upon  the  lii'story  of  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  America.  3iH  hXXt 

1.  That  astonishing  incident  in  human  affairs,  the  Revolution 
of  America,  as  seen  on  the  day  of  its  portentous,  or  rather,  let  me 
say,  of  its  auspicious  commencement,  is  the  theme  of  our  present 
consideration.  2.  On  the  one  hand,  we  behold  a  connection  of 
events, — the  time  and  circumstances  of  the  original  discovery; 
the  settlements  of  the  Pilgrims,  and  their  peculiar  principles  and 
character ;  their  singular  political  relations  with  the  mother-coun- 
try; their  long  and  doubtful  struggles  with  the  savage  tribes; 
their  collisions  with  the  royal   governors ;    their   cooperation  in  > 

the  British  wars,  —  with  all  the  influences  of  their  geographical 
and  physical  condition,  uniting  to  constitute  what  I  may  call  the 
national  edijj^atiQn  of  America. 

3.  Wh^ElTWfe^lte  ^'ttis  survey  we  feel,  as  far  as  Massachusetts 
is  concerned,  that  we  9ught  to  divide  the  honors  of  the  Revolution 
with  the  great  men  of  the  colony  in  every  generation;  with  the 
Winslows  and  the  Pepperells,  the  Cookes,  the  Duinmers  and  the 
INIathers,  the  Winthrops  and  the  Bradfords,  and  all  w^ho  labored 
and  acted  in  the  cabinet,  the  desk,  or  the  field,  for  the  one  great 
cause. 

4.  On  the   other  hand,  when  we  dwell  upon  the   day  itself, 
everything  else  seems  lost  in  the  comparison.     5.-^^d  our  fathers 
failed  on  that  day  of  trial  which  we  now  celebrate;  J»«$  th^ir    ,  Vjr 
votes  and  their  resolves  (as  was  taunlSfigly  predicted  (m'bom  sidee 

of  the  Atlantic)  ended  in  the  breath  in  which  they  began ;  iiife 


How  to  Say  It,  185 


t 


the  rebels  laid  down  their  arms,  as  they  were  commanded;  and  'J 
the  militaiy  stores,  whiclihad  ld©en  frugally  treasured  up  for  this 
crisis,  been,  without  resistance,^destroyea,  —  then  the  Revolution 
would  have  been  at  an  end,  or  rather  never  had  been  begun ;  the 
heads  of  Hancock  and  Adams  and  their  brave  colleagues  would 
have  been  exposed  in  ghastly  triumph  on  Temple  Bar ;  a  military 
despotism  would  have  been  firmly  fixed  in  the  colonies;  the 
patriots  o|  JV^ssachusetts  would  have  been^  doubly  despised  —  the 
scorn^f  Tneir  enemies,  tl^  scorn"  q^  their  ' deluded  countrymen; 
and  the  heart  of  this  great  people,  then  beating  and  almost  burst- 
ing for  freedom,  would  have  been  struck  cold  and  dead,  perhaps 
forever.  .  . 

EXERCISE  62.         /^^ 

Ee-write  the  following  for  the  most  part  in  periodic  sen- 
tences and  compare  your  version  with  the  original. 

There  are  ten  thousand  ways  of  telling  a  lie.  A  man's  entire 
life  may  be  a  falsehood,  while  with  his  lips  he  may  not  once 
directly  falsify.  There  are  those  who  state  what  is  positively 
untrue,  but  afterward  say  "may  be"  softly.  These  departures 
fi-om  the  truth  are  called  white  lies,  but  there  is  really  no  such 
thing  as  a  white  lie.  The  whitest  lie  that  was  ever  told  was  as 
black  as  perdition.  There  are  men  high  in  church  and  state, 
actually  useful,  self-denying,  and  honest  in  many  things,  who, 
upon  certain  subjects  and  in  certain  spheres,  are  not  at  all  to  be 
depended  upon  for  veracity.  Indeed,  ^her^e  ^f^  multitudes  of  men 
who  have  their  notion  of  truthfulness  so  thoroughly  perverted  that 
they  do  not  know  w^hen  they  are  lying.  With  many  it  is  a  culti- 
vated sin  ;  with  some  it  seems  a  natural  infirmity.  I  have  known 
people  who  seemed  to  have  been  born  liars.  The  falsehoods  of 
their  lives  extended  from  cradle  to  grave.  Prevarication,  misrep- 
resentation, and  dishonesty  of  speech,  appeared  in  their  first  utter- 
ances, and  were  as  natural  to  them  as  any  of  their  infantile 
diseases,  and  were  a  sort  of  moral  croup  or  spiritual  scarlatina. 
But  many  have  been  placed  in  circumstances  where  this  tendency 
has  day  by  day  and  hour  by  hour  been  called  to  larger  develop- 
ment. They  have  gone  from  attainment  to  attainment,  and  from 
class  to  class,  until  they  have  become  regularly  graduated  liars. 


186  Composition-Rhetoric. 

The  air  of  the  city  is  filled  with  falsehoods.  They  hang  pen- 
dent  from  the  chandeliers  of  our  finest  residences.  They  crowd 
the  shelves  of  some  of  our  merchant  princes.  They  fill  the  side- 
walk from  curb-stone  to  brown-stone  facing.  They  cluster  round 
the  mechanic's  hammer,  and  blossom  from  the  end  of  the  mer- 
chant's yardstick,  and  sit  in  the  doors  of  churches.  Some  call 
them  "  fiction."  Some  style  them  "  fabrications."  You  might  say 
that  they  were  subterfuge,  disguise,  illusion,  romance,  evasion, 
pretence,  fable,  deception,  misrepresentation ;  but,  as  I  am  igno- 
rant of  anything  to  be  gained  by  the  hiding  of  a  God-defying 
outrage  under  a  lexicographer's  blanket,  I  shall  chiefly  call  them 
in  plainest  vernacular  —  lies. 

Let  us  all  strive  to  be  what  we  appear  to  be,  and  banish  from 
our  lives  everything  that  looks  like  deception,  remembering  that 
God  will  yet  reveal  to  the  universe  what  we  really  are. 

EXERCISE  63.       ^^^W\M<^ — -     ' 

What  sameness  of  structure  do  you  notice  in  the  sen- 
tences of  the  following  paragraphs  ?  Re-write,  and  re-com- 
bine, introducing  variety  of  beginnings  and  variety  of  sus- 
pense. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Christian  powers  of  Europe,  or  Rus- 
sia and  England  alone,  could,  by  main  force,  put  a  stop  to  the 
persecution  of  the  Armenian  Christians  by  the  Turks.  One  of  the 
reasons  for  their  exceeding  caution  in  the  case  is  their  knowledge 
and  experience  of  the  fighting  ability  of  the  Turks.  Drive  the 
Turk  to  the  wall,  and  he  will  fight  against  any  odds.  Inflame  his 
religious  zeal,  and  he  will  rush  upon  the  combined  armies  of 
Christendom.  Threaten  his  sanctuaries,  and  the  most  arrant  cow- 
ard will  become  a  hero.  Lead  him  to  believe  that  he  is  called 
upon  to  engage  in  a  holy  war  for  Islam,  and  death  in  battle 
becomes  the  highest  joy  for  him.  He  has  supreme  faith  in  Allah 
and  the  Prophet.  He  believes  in  kismet,  "to  him  the  vision  of 
paradise  is  a  perpetual  inspiration.  The  Turk  has  fought  all  the 
races  in  the  world.  He  has  been  held  in  check  only  by  over- 
whelming forces.  His  history  from  the  times  of  old  has  been 
chiefly  that  of  warfare. 


How  to  Say  It.  187 

I  remember  an  old  scholastic  aphorism,  which  says,  that  "  the 
man  who  lives  wholly  detached  from  others  must  be  either  an 
angel  or  a  devil."  When  I  see  in  any  of  these  detached  gentlemen 
of  our  times  the  augelic  purity,  power,  and  beneficence,  I  shall 
admit  them  to  be  angels.  In  the  meantime  we  are  born  only  to 
be  men.  We  shall  do  enough  if  we  form  ourselves  to  be  good 
ones.  It  is  therefore  our  business  carefull}^  to  cultivate  in  our 
minds,  to  rear  to  the  most  perfect  vigor  and  maturity,  every  sort 
of  generous  and  honest  feeling  that  belongs  to  our  nature.  To 
bring  the  dispositions  that  are  lovely  in  private  life  into  the  ser- 
vice of  the  commonwealth ;  so  to  be  patriots  as  not  to  forget  we 
are  gentlemen.  To  cultivate  friendships,  and  to  incur  enmities. 
To  have  both  strong,  but  both  selected  :  in  the  one,  to  be  placable  ; 
in  the  other  immovable.  To  model  our  principles  to  our  duties 
and  our  situation.  To  be  fully  persuaded  that  all  virtue  which  is 
impracticable  is  spurious ;  and  rather  to  run  the  risk  of  falling 
to  faults  in  a  course  which  leads  us  to  act  with  effect  and  energy, 
an  to  loiter  out  our  days  without  blame,  and  without  use.  Public 
life  is  a  situation  of  power  and  energy ;  he  trespasses  against  his 
duty  who  sleeps  upon  his  watch,  as  well  as  he  that  goes  over  to 
the  enemy. 

EXERCISE  64. 

Write  about  300  words  on' one  of  the  following  topics,  making 
many  of  the  sentences  periodic  in  form,  and  trying  the  various 
devices  for  suspense  :  — 

1.  Americans  should  not  hate  the  English.      ^'^^J^      t 

2.  Thoughts  on  Independence  Day. 

3.  Accuracy  in  writing  and  speaking  is  a  moral  attain- 
ment. 

4.  It  makes  a  difference  for  what  purposes  we  spend 
money. 

5.  Advantages  of  a  public  library. 

6.  Admirable  traits  in  Abraham  Lincoln's  character. 

7.  A  heroic  deed. 

8.  The  character  of  Miles  Standish. 

9.  The  dignity  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson. 


188  Composition-Rhetoric, 

10.  Needed  street  improvements. 

11.  Early  life  of  George  Eliot. 

12.  Was  Bassanio  a  proper  husband  for  Portia  ? 


"^/W/r^. 


LESso:^r  25.        

Uses  of  the  Balanced  Sentence. 

A  balanced  sentence  is  one  in  which  corresponding  parts 
are  made  similar  in  form  in  order  to  bring  out  parallelism 
in  meaning.  The  following  paragraph,  after  the  first  sen- 
tence, shows  similarity  of  form  in  five  sentences,  the  scheme 
of  structure  being  if — it  shows  in  each  sentence :  — 

The  parts  and  signs  of  goodness  are  many.  If  a  man  be 
gracious  and  courteous  to  strangers,  it  shows  that  he  is  a  citizen 
of  the  world,  and  that  his  heart  is  no  island  cut  off  from  other 
lands,  but  a  continent  that  joins  to  them.  If  he  be  compassionate 
towards  the  afflictions  of  others,  it  shows  that  his  heart  is  like 
the  noble  tree  that  is  wounded  itself  when  it  gives  the  balm.  If 
he  easily  pardons  and  remits  offences,  it  shows  that  his  mind  is 
planted  above  injuries,  so  that  he  cannot  be  shot.  If  he  be  thank- 
ful for  small  benefits,  it  shg^s  that  he  weighs  men's  minds,  and 
not  their  trash.  But,  above  all,  if  he  have  St.  PauPs  perfection, 
that  he  would  wish  to  be  anathema  from  Christ  for  the  salvation 
of  his  brethren,  it  shows  much  of  a  divine  nature,  and  a  kind  of 
conformity  with  Christ  liimself.  —  Bacon  :   Of  Goodness. 

In  the  following  paragraph  the  second  sentence  divides  at 
but;  the  scheme  of  structure  in  the  first  part  being  not  to 
—  or,  not  to  —  nor  to,  not  to  —  or,  and  of  the  last  part  but 
to,  to,  etc.,  corresponding  expressions  being  similar  in  form 
of  statement  and  of  about  the  same  number  of  words.  In 
sentence  4,  the  repetitions  (voyage  of  discovery,  circumnavi- 
gation of  charity)  correspond  precisely  in  form.  In  sentence 
6,  the  contrasting  words  (not  by  detail  but  in  gross)  are  simi- 
larly placed. 


How  to  Say  It,  189 

1.  I  cannot  name  this  gentleman  without  remarking  that  his 
labors  and  writings  have  done  much  to  open  the  eyes  and  hearts 
of  mankind.  2.  He  has  visited  all  Europe,  not  to.  survey  the 
sumptuousness  of  palaces,  or  the  stateliness  of  temples ;  not  to 
make  accurate  measurements  of  the  remains  of  ancient  grandeur, 
nor  to  form  a  scale  of  the  curiosity  of  modern  art ;  not  to  collect 
medals,  or  collate  manuscripts :  h^t  ^(^  dive  into  the  depths  of 
dungeons ;  to  plunge  into  the  infection  of  hospitals ;  to  survey 
the  mansions  of  sorrow  and  pain ;  Jo^take  the  gauge  and  dimen- 
sions of  misery,  depression,  and  contempt;  to  remember  the  for- 
gotten, ia  attend  to  the  neglected,  ta  visit  the  forsaken,  and  to 
compare  and  collate  the  distresses  of  all  men  in  all  countries. 
3.  His  plan  is  original ;  and  it  is  as  full  of  genius  as  it  is  of  hu- 
manity. 4.  It  was  a  voyage  of  discovery ;  a  circumnavigation  of 
charity.  5.  Already  the  benefit  of  his  labor  is  felt  moreor  iess*" 
in  every  country ;  I  hope  he  will  anticipate  his  final  reward,  by 
seeing  all  its  effects  fully  realized  in  his  own.  6.  He  will  receive, 
not  by  detail  but  in  gross,  the  reward  of  those  who  visit  the  pris- 
oner ;  and  he  has  so  torestalled  and  monopolized  this  branch  of 
charity,  that  there  will  be,  I  trust,  little  room  to  merit  by  such 
acts  of  benevolence  hereafter.  —  Burke  :  Speech  at  Bristol. 

The  habit  of  clothing  similar  thoughts  in  clauses^  or 
phrases,  or  sentences,  of  about  equal  length  and  of  similar 
structure,  may  easily  become  a  mannerism.  A  series  of 
balances  grows  speedily  wearisome  and  becomes  offensively 
regular.  The  reader  suspects,  sometimes,  that  the  facts  are 
not  so  accurately  balanced  as  the  words  would  indicate. 

Use  the  balanced  sentence  only  when  parallelism  of  the  thought 
requires. 

EXERCISE  65. 


Point  out  all  the  contrasting  words,  phrases,  and  clauses 
that  are  balanced  in  the  following  paragraphs :  — 

I  believe  we  can  nowhere  find  a  better  type  of  a  perfectly  free 
creature  than  in  the  common  house  fly.  ^or  fl^e^^ily.  but  brave  ; 
and  irreverent  to  a  degree  which  I  think  no  human  republican 


190  Composition- Rhetoric, 

could  by  any  philosophy  exalt  himself  to.  There  is  no  courtesy  in 
him ;  he  does  not  care  whether  it  is  king  or  clown  whom  he  teases ; 
and  in  every  step  of  his  swift  mechanical  march,  and  in  every 
pause  of  Ins^esolute  observation,  there  is  gig" and  the  saipe  expres- 
sionjodT  perfect  egotism,  perfect  independence  and  self-confidence, 
and  conviction  oFThe  world's  having  been  made  for  flies.  Strike 
at  him  with  your  hand;  and  to  him,  the  mechanical  fact  and 
external  aspect  of  the  matter  is,  wliat  to  you  it  would  be,  if  an 
acre  of  red  clay,  ten  feet  thick,  tore  itself  up  from  the  ground  in 
one  massive  field,  hovered  over  you  in  the  air  for  a  second,  and 
came  crashing  down  with  an  aim.  That  is  the  external  aspect  of 
it ;  the  inner  aspect,  to  his  fly's  mind,  is  of  quite  natural  and  unim- 
portanfoccurrence  —  one  of  the  momentary  conditions  of  his  active 
life.  He  steps  c^^\  of  i^^  -^^y  nf  yf^i^y  hnnd^  and  alights  on  th^ 
back  of  it.  You  cannot  terrify  him,  nor  govern  him,  nor  persuade 
liim,  nor  convince  him.  He  has  his  own  positive  opinion  on  all 
matters ;  not  an  unwise  one,  usually,  for  his  own  ends ;  and  will 
ask  no  advice  of  yours.  He  has  no  work  to  do  —  no^^tyrannical 
instinct  to  obey.  The  earth wornT  has  Iirs"°3l$ging ;  the  bee,  her 
gathering  and  building ;  the  spider,  her  cunning  net-work ;  the 
ant,  her  treasury  and  accounts.  All  these  are  comparative  slaves, 
or  people  of  vulgar  business.  But  your  fly,  free  in  the  air,  free  in 
Jlie  chamber  —  a  black  incarnatiou  of  caprice  —  wandering,  investi- 
gating, flitting,  flirting,  feasting  at  his  will,  with  rich  variety  of 
choice  in  feast,  from  the  heaped  sweets  in  the  grocer's  window  to 
those  of  the  butcher's  back-jard,  and  from  the  galled  place  on 
your  caB^hofse'snback  to  the  brown  spot  in  the  road,  from  which 
as  ihe  hoof  disturbs  him,  he  rises  with  angry  republican  buzz 
—  what  freedom  is  like  his?  —  Ruskin :  Queen  of  the  Air, 

Pictorial  composition  may  be  defined  as  the  proportionate 
arranging  and  unifying  of  the  different  features  and  objects  of 
a  picture.  It  is  not  the  huddling  together  of  miscellaneous  studio 
properties  —  a  dummy,  a  vase,  a  rug  here,  and  a  sofa,  a  fireplace, 
a  table  there ;  it  isnot  the  lugging  in  by  the  ears  of  unimportant 
people  to  fill  up  the  background  of  the  canvas,  as  in  the  spectacu- 
lar play;  it  is  not  taking  a  real  group  from  nature  and  transplant- 
ing it  upon  canvas.  There  must  be  an  exercise  of  judgment  on 
the  part  of  the  artist  as  to  fitness  and  position,  as  to  harmony  of 


How  to  Say  It.  191 

relation,  proportion,  color,  light;  and  there  must  be  a  skilful 
uniting  of  all  the  parts  into  one  perfect  whole.  —  J.  C.  Van  Dyke  : 
How  to  Judge  of  a  Picture,  95. 

The  clergyman  of  fashion  was  pale  and  fragile ;  he  of  the  people 
was  florid  and  muscular.  He  had  no  attendant  to  remove  his  hat 
and  cloak.  He  had  no  comfortable  study  in  the  church  building 
where  he  smoothed  his  hair  and  arranged  his  cuffs.  He  declaimed 
beforejio-jull-length  mirror,  and  never  wore  a  pair  of  patent 
leathers  in  his  life.  When  he  ascended  tFe  platform,  threading  v 
his  way  through  the  men  and  women  on  its  steps,  and  patting  the  j'^U' Ui 
curly  hair  of  boys  perched  on  the  ledge,  he  slung  his  soft  felt  hat  Amiij 
under  a  little  table,  put  one  leg  over  the  other  while  he  removed  . 
his  rubbers,  threw  back  his  cloak,  settled  himself  in  his  chair,  and' 
gave  a  sigh  of  relief  as  he  drew  a  restful  breath  after  his  quick 
walk  from  home.  In  other  words,  he  was  a  man  bent  on  man's 
duty.  If  the  air  seemed  close  he  said  so,  called  an  usher  and  had 
the  windows  lowered.  If  he  desired  a  special  tune  sung  to  the 
hymn  he  gave  out,  he  turned  to  the  director  and  told  him  so.  If 
he  forgot  a  date  or  a  name,  he  asked  one  of  the  people  near  him 
wiiat  it  was.  If  strangers  sitting  close  to  the  platform  were 
miprovided  with  hymn-book s,Jie  leaned  forward  and  handed  them 
several  from  his  desk.  As  he  said,  "  I  am  at  home ;  they  are  our 
guests.  What  is  proper  in  my  house  is  eminently  proper  in  the 
house  of  the  Lord !  "  —  Jos.  Howard  :  Life  of  Beecher,  158. 


EXERCISE  66. 


In  what  parts  of  the  following  paragraph  does  the  bal- 
ance seem  forced  and  unnecessary  ?  E-e-state  the  thought 
in  looser  form  and  in  simpler  sentences. 

In  perusing  the  works  of  this  race  of  authors,  the  mind  is  exer- 
cised either  by  recollection  or  inquiry ;  either  something  already 
learned  is  to  be  retrieved,  or  something  new  is  to  be  examined.  If  ^^ 
their  greatness  seldom  elevates,  their  acuteness  often  surprises ;  if_ 
the  imagination  is  not  often  gratified,  at  least  the  powers  of  reflec- 
tion  and  comparison  are  employed ;  and  m  the  mass  of  materials 
which  ingenious  absurdity  has  thrown  together,  genuine  wit  and 


AJtrmdJkuvv^  (VKSjji,  (M-Ur  )di\XM  OiAMt  Oi^A^^N^Jij-iA 


192  Oomposition-Rhetoric,   ^^"^     ^ 


useful  knowledge  may  be  sometimes  found  buried  perhaps  in 
grossness  of  expression, ^but  useful  to  those  who  know  their  value; 
and  such  as  w^hen  they  are  expanded  to  perspicuity,  and  polished 
to  elegance,  may  give  lustre  to  works  which  have  more  propriety 
though  less  copiousness  of  sentiment. 


\(y\/r^ 


,^^pRCISE  67. 

Ee-write  the  material  of  ihe  following  selection  intro- 
ducing balanced  words,  phrases,  clauses,  and  sentences  as 
often  as  you  can.     Compare  your  version  with  the  original. 

Another  form  of  genteel  ignorance  consists  in  being  so  com- 
pletely blinded  by  conventionalism  as  not  to  be  able  to  perceive 
the  essential  identity  of  two  modes  of  life  or  habits  of  action  when 
one  of  them  happens  to  be  in  what  is  called  "  good  form,"  whilst 
the  other  is  not  accepted  by  polite  society.  My  own  tastes  and 
pursuits  have  often  led  me  to  do  things,  for  the  sake  of  study  or 
pleasure,  which  in  reality  differ  but  very  slightly  from  what  gen- 
teel people  often  do ;  yet,  at  the  same  time,  this  slight  difference 
is  sufficient  to  prevent  them  from  seeing  any  resemblance  whatever 
between  my  practice  and  theirs.  When  a  young  man  I  found  a 
wooden  hut  extremely  convenient  for  painting  from  nature,  and 
when  at  a  distance  from  other  lodging  I  slept  in  it.  This  was 
unfashionable,  and  genteel  people  expressed  much  wonder  at  it, 
being  especially  surprised  that  I  could  be  so  imprudent  as  to  risk 
health  by  sleeping  in  a  little  wooden  house.  Conventionalism 
made  them  perfectly  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  they  occasionally 
slept  in  little  wooden  houses  themselves.  A  railway  carriage  is 
simply  a  wooden  hut  on  wheels,  generally  very  ill-ventilated,  and 
presenting  the  alternative  of  foul  air  or  a  strong  draught,  with 
vibration  that  makes  sleep  difficult  to  some  and  to  others  abso- 
lutely impossible.  I  have  passed  many  nights  in  those  public 
huts  on  wheels,  but  have  never  slept  in  them  so  pleasantly  as  in 
my  own  private  one.  Genteel  people  also  use  wooden  dwellings 
that  float  on  water.  A  yacht's  cabin  is  nothing  but  a  hut  of  a 
peculiar  shape,  with  its  own  peculiar  inconveniences.  On  land  a 
hut  will  remain  steady ;  at  sea  it  inclines  in  every  direction,  and 
is  tossed  about  like  Gulliver's  large  box.     An  Italian  nobleman 


0  Hoy,  to  Sayht.  (Vr^j^^   ^ 

who  liked  travel,  but  had  no  taste  for  dirty  southern  inns,  had 
four  vans  that  formed  a  square  at  night,  with  a  little  courtyard 
in  the  middle,  that  was  covered  with  canvas,  and  served  as  a 
spacious  dining-room.  The  arrangement  was  excellent,  but  he 
was  considered  hopelessly  eccentric  j  yet  how  slight  was  the  dif- 
ference between  his  vans  and  a  train  of  saloon  carriages  foj  the 
railway  ?  He  simply  had  saloon  carriages  that  were  adapted  for 
common  roads. 

EXERCISE  68.     '^'^^'     '  ^      \ 

Write  a  paragraph  mainly  of  balanced  sentences  on  one  of  tl\e 
following  topics :  — 

1.  Immigrants  that  we  want  and  immigrants  that  we  do 
not  want. 

2.  Poverty  distinguished  from  pauperism. 

3.  Novels  that  help  and  novels  that  hinder. 

4.  Caesar  compared  with  Brutus. 

5.  Which  is  the  greater  villain,  Shylock  or  lago  ? 

6.  Compare  two  public  speakers  whom  you  have  heard. 

7.  Contrast  Evangeline  and  Priscilla,  or  John  Alden 
and  Miles  Standish. 

8.  Contrast  Grand  Pre  (in  Evangeline)  and  Plymouth 
(in  Miles  Standish). 

9.  Washington  and  Lincoln;  or,  Hamilton  and  Jeffer- 
son ;  or,  Longfellow  and  Whittier ;  or,  George  Eliot  and 
Mrs.  Mary  Ward. 

10.  The  distinction  between  socialism  and  nihilism ;  or, 
law  and  public  opinion ;  or,  charity  and  alms-giving. 

11.  Compare  and  contrast  two  synonyms,  two  trees,  two 
books,  two  characters,  two  dramatic  situations,  two  historical 
scenes,  or  two  courses  of  conduct. 


194  Composition-Rhetoric. 

LESSOl^  26. 

Combinations  of  Sentence-Types, 

In  the  preceding  lessons  we  have  noticed  that  the  best 
paragraphs  show  more  than  one  kind  of  sentence.  Long 
and  short,  periodic  and  loose  sentences,  with  an  occasional 
balanced  structure,  appear  in  different  forms  in  the  same 
paragraph,  and  thus  a  pleasing  variety  is  secured.  Fur- 
ther variety  is  added  and  force  is  gained  by  the  appropri- 
ate use  of  the  exclamation  and  interrogation,  and  of  mixed 
or  composite  sentences.     These  we  shall  now  consider. 

The  following  paragraph  shows  four  exclamatory  sen- 
tences and  five  questions.  In  the  declarative  form  the  first 
sentence  would  read,  "  A  university  presents  a  strange  pict- 
ure to  the  imagination '' ;  the  ninth  would  close,  "  and  you 
would  blot  out  with  them  very  much  of  her  glory  ^';  the 
tenth  would  close  in  the  same  way.  The  fifteenth  would 
close:  "The  time  or  people  should  not  be  called  wholly 
barbarous;  for  the  human  mind  could  achieve  this  much, 
even  then  and  there."  As  to  the  questions,  sentence  4,  if 
reduced  to  the  declarative  form,  would  read,  "Otherwise, 
the  undying  lamp  of  thought  would  not  be  fed  '^ ;  sentence 
11,  "  The  history  of  Spain  would  look  sadly  mutilated  if," 
etc.  Sentences  12,  13,  and  14,  like  sentence  11,  could  be 
reduced  to  the  declarative  form  by  supplying  a  word  in 
answer  to  the  question  asked  in  each.  Making  the  changes 
indicated  above,  compare  the  result  with  the  original,  and 
note  the  loss  in  enthusiasm,  force,  and  variety  when  all 
the  sentences  are  declarative  in  form. 

1.  What  a  strange  picture  a  university  presents  to  the  imagina- 
tion !  2.  The  lives  of  scholars  in  their  cloistered  stillness,  —  liter- 
ary men  of  retired  habits,  and  professors  who  study  sixteen  hours  a 
day,  and  never  see  the  world  but  on  a  Sunday.  3.  Nature  has,  no 
doubt  for  some  wise  purpose,  placed  in  their  hearts  this  love  of 


Eow  to  Say  It,  195 

literary  labor  and  seclusion.  4.  Otherwise,  who  would  feed  the 
undying  lamp  of  thought?  5.  But  for  such  men  as  these,  a  blast 
of  wind  through  the  chinks  and  crannies  of  this  old  world,  or  the 
flapping  of  a  conqueror's  banner,  would  blow  it  out  forever.  6.  The 
light  of  the  soul  is  easily  extinguished.  7.  And  whenever  I  reflect 
upon  these  things,  I  become  aware  of  the  great  importance,  in  a 
nation's  history,  of  the  individual  fame  of  scholars  and  literary 
men.  8.  I  fear  that  it  is  far  greater  than  the  world  is  willing  to  ac- 
knowledge ;  or,  perhaps  I  should  say,  than  the  world  has  thought  of 
acknowledging.  9.  Blot  out  from  England's  history  the  names  of 
Chaucer,  Shakespeare,  Spenser,  and  Milton  only  and  how  much 
of  her  glory  would  you  blot  out  with  them !  10.  Take  from  Italy 
such  names  as  Dante,  Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  Michael  Angelo,  and 
Raphael,  and  how  much  would  be  wanting  to  the  completeness  of 
her  glory!  11.  How  would  the  history  of  Spain  look  if  the  leaves 
were  torn  out  on  which  are  written  the  names  of  Cervantes,  Lope 
de  Vega,  and  Calderon  ?  12.  What  would  be  the  fame  of  Portu- 
gal, without  her  Camoens;  of  France,  without  her  Racine,  and 
Rabelais,  and  Voltaire,  or  Germany,  without  her  Martin  Luther, 
her  Goethe,  and  her  Schiller  ?  13.  Nay,  what  were  the  nations  of 
old  without  their  philosophers,  poets,  and  historians?  14.  Tell 
me,  do  not  these  men,  in  all  ages  and  in  all  places,  emblazon  with 
bright  colors  the  armorial  bearings  of  their  country?  15.  Yes,  and 
far  more  than  this ;  for  in  all  ages  and  all  places  they  give  human- 
ity assurance  of  its  greatness,  and  say,  "  Call  not  the  time  or  people 
wholly  barbarous ;  for  this  much,  even  then  and  there,  could  the 
human  mind  achieve  !  "  —  Longfellow. 

Many  good  sentences,  perhaps  the  majority  of  good  writ- 
ten sentences,  are  mixed  or  composite  in  structure,  neither 
entirely  periodic  nor  entirely  loose,  but  partly  one  and  partly 
the  other.  A  sentence  will  sometimes  begin  as  a  periodic 
sentence,  continue  periodic  for  half  or  three-fourths  of  its 
entire  extent,  sometimes  even  up  to  the  very  last  clause, 
and  will  then  become  loose.  Or  a  sentence  will  begin  as 
a  loose  sentence,  and  will  close  as  a  periodic.  A  sentence 
w^holly  loose  may  contain  a  clause  which  is  periodic.  In 
both  loose  and  periodic  sentences,  a  series  of  clauses  of 


196  Composit  ton-Rhetoric, 

about  the  same  length  and  of  similar  structure  are  fre- 
quently found,  or  minor  details,  contrasting  in  thought, 
are  balanced  against  one  another. 

In  the  following  paragraph  the  third  sentence  begins  as 
a  periodic  sentence,  the  ?!/-clause  coming  first,  and  continues 
periodic  down  to  the  appended  phrase,  ^^  drowning  all  other 
sounds " ;  then,  after  the  semicolon,  another  periodic  sen- 
tence begins,  continuing  down  to  the  appended  clause  "  and 
you  are  scanned,"  etc.  In  general  structure  this  sentence 
is  also  balanced  part  for  part. 

I  hardly  know  whether  I  am  more  pleased  or  annoyed  with  the 
cat-bird.  Perhaps  she  is  a  little  too  common,  and  her  part  in  the 
general  chorus  a  little  too  conspicuous.  If  you  are  listening  for 
the  note  of  another  bird,  she  is  sure  to  be  prompted  to  the  most 
loud  and  protracted  singing,  drowning  all  other  sounds;  if  you  sit 
quietly  down  to  observe  a  favorite  or  study  a  new-comer,  her  curi- 
osity knows''no  bounds,  and  you  are  scanned  and  ridiculed  from 
every  point  of  observation.  Yet  I  would  not  miss  her ;  I  would 
only  subordinate  her  a  little,  make  her  less  conspicuous.  —  Bur- 
roughs :   Wake  Robin. 

In  the  following  selection,  sentence  4  begins  as  a  periodic 
sentence,  and  continues  periodic  to  the  first  semicolon ;  then 
two  lines  are  in  balanced  form;  then  the  periodic  structure 
is  resumed  by  means  of  the  construction  so  —  so  —  so  —  that, 
the  sentence  closing  with  a  balanced  clause  which  grows  out 
of  the  words  so  soon.  Sentences  5  and  6  are  made  up  of  parts 
constructed  on  one  plan  in  each  sentence.  Sentence  7  is, 
in  general  structure,  loose,  but  contains  a  part  that  is  sus- 
pended by  the  word  while.  Sentence  9  is  loose  to  the  semi- 
colon, and  then  becomes  periodic  to  the  close.  Sentence  10 
is  periodic  throughout. 

1.  We  live  in  a  most  extraordinary  age.  2.  Events  so  various 
and  so  important,  that  they  might  crowd  and  distinguish  centuries, 
are,  in  our  times,  compressed  within  the  compass  of  a  single  life. 


How  to  Say  It,  197 

3.  When  has  it  happened  that  history  has  had  so  much  to  record, 
in  the  same  term  of  years,  as  since  the  17th  of  June,  1775?  4.  Our 
own  Revolution,  which,  under  other  circumstances,  might  itself 
have  been  expected  to  occasion  a  war  of  half  a  century,  has  been 
achieved;  twenty-four  sovereign  and  independent  states  erected; 
and  a  general  government  established  over  them,  so  safe,  so  wise, 
so  free,  so  practical,  that  we  might  well  wonder  its  establishment 
should  have  been  accomplished  so  soon,  were  it  not  far  the  greater 
wonder  that  it  should  have  been  established  at  all.  5.  Two  or 
three  millions  of  people  have  been  augmented  to  twelve,  the  great 
forests  of  the  West  prostrated  beneath  the  arm  of  successful 
industry,  and  the  dwellers  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  and  the 
Mississippi  become  the  fellow-citizens  and  neighbors  of  those  who 
cultivate  the  hills  of  New  England.  6.  We  have  a  commerce 
that  leaves  no  sea  unexplored ;  navies  w^hich  take  no  law  from 
superior  force ;  revenues  adequate  to  all  the  exigencies  of  govern- 
ment, almost  without  taxation;  and  peace  with  all  nations, 
founded  on  equal  rights  and  mutual  respect. 

7.  Europe,  within  the  same  period,  has  been  agitated  by  a 
mighty  revolution,  which,  while  it  has  been  felt  in  the  individual 
condition  and  happiness  of  almost  every  man,  has  shaken  to  the 
centre  her  political  fabric,  and  dashed  against  one  another  thrones 
which  had  stood  tranquil  for  ages.  8.  On  this,  our  continent, 
our  own  example  has  been  followed,  and  colonies  have  sprung  up 
to  be  nations.  9.  Unaccustomed  sounds  of  liberty  and  free  gov- 
ernment have  reached  us  from  beyond  the  track  of  the  sun ;  and 
at  this  moment  the  dominion  of  European  power  in  this  conti- 
nent, from  the  place  where  we  stand  to  the  south  pole,  is  anni- 
hilated forever. 

10.  In  the  mean  time,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  such  has 
been  the  general  progress  of  knowledge,  such  the  improvements 
in  legislation,  in  commerce,  in  the  arts,  in  letters,  and  above  all 
in  liberal  ideas  and  the  general  spirit  of  the  age,  that  the  whole 
world  seems  changed.  — Webster  :  First  Bunker  Hill  Oration, 
• 

It  is  because  periodic  sentences  show  a  more  closely 
knit  construction  and  require,  while  they  are  being  written, 
careful  attention  to  the  structure  and  to  the  best  placement 


198  Composition-Rhetoric . 

of  phrases  and  clauses,  that  the  pupil  should  make  most 
of  his  sentences  approach  the  periodic  type.  When  the 
phrases,  clauses,  and  modifiers  generally  are  numerous,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  place  some  of  them  first  and  some  of 
them  last,  thus  making  the  sentences  partly  periodic  and 
partly  loose.  The  first  sentence  in  the  following  selection 
indicates  such  a  distribution  of  phrases :  — 

Poems  and  noble  extracts,  whether  of  verse  or  prose,  once 
reduced  into  possession,  and  rendered  truly  our  own,  may  be  to  us 
a  daily  pleasure ;  —  better  far  than  a  whole  library  unused.  They 
come  to  us  in  our  dull  moments,  to  refresh  us  as  with  spring 
flowers ;  in  our  selfish  musings,  to  win  us  by  pure  delight  from 
the  tyranny  of  foolish  castle-building,  self-congratulations,  and 
mean  anxieties.  They  may  be  with  us  in  the  workshop,  in  the 
crowded  streets,  by  the  fireside ;  sometimes,  perhaps,  on  pleasant 
hill-sides,  or  by  sounding  shores;  —  noble  friends  and  companions 
—  our  own  !  never  intrusive,  ever  at  hand,  coming  at  our  call ! 
Shakespeare,  Milton,  Wordsworth,  Tennyson,  —  the  words  of  such 
men  do  not  stale  upon  us,  they  do  not  grow  old  or  cold. 

Use  the  exclamation  or  the  question  occasionally  when  the  emo- 
tion will  justify  its  use.  In  general,  make  most  of  your  sentences 
rather  periodic  than  loose  in  their  main  structure,  varying  their 
beginnings  and  endings. 

EXERCISE  69. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  notice  the  variety  of  sentence- 
structure.  In  the  sentences  which  are  partly  or  wholly  peri- 
odic, point  out  the  words  by  means,  of  which  suspense  is 
secured. 

It  is  now  past  midnight.     The  moon  is  full  and  bright,  andv 
the  shadows  lie  so  dark  and  massive  in  the  street  that  they  seem 
a  part  of  the  walls  that  cast  them.     I  have  just  returned  from  the 
Coliseum,  whose  ruins  are  so  marvellously  beautiful  by  moofilight. 
No  stranger  at  Rome  omits  this  midnight  visit ;  for  though  there 


How  to  Say  It.  199 

is  something  unpleasant  in  having  one's  admiration  forestalled, 
and  being  as  it  were  romantic  aforethought,  yet  the  charm  is  so 
powerful,  the  scene  so  surpassingly  beautiful  and  sublime,  —  the 
hour,  the  silence,  and  the  colossal  ruin  have  such  a  mastery  over 
the  soul,  —  that  you  are  disarmed  when  most  upon  your  guard, 
and  betrayed  into  an  enthusiasm  which  perhaps  you  had  silently 
resolved  you  would  not  feel. 

On  my  way  to  the  Coliseum  I  crossed  the  Capitoline  Hill,  and 
descended  into  the  Roman  Forum  by  the  broad  staircase  that 
leads  to  the  triumphal  arch  of  Septimius  Severus.  Close  upon 
my  right  hand  stood  the  three  remaining  columns  of  the  Temple 
of  the  Thunderer,  and  the  beautiful  Ionic  portico  of  the  Temple  of 
Concord,  —  their  base  in  shadow,  and  the  bright  moonbeam  strik- 
ing aslant  upon  the  broken  entablature  above.  Before  me  rose 
the  Phocian  Column,  an  isolated  shaft,  like  a  thin  vapor  hanging 
in  the  air,  scarce  visible;  and  far  to  the  left,  the  ruins  of  the 
Temple  of  Antonio  and  Faustina,  and  the  three  colossal  arches 
of  the  Temple  of  Peace,  —  dim,  shadowy,  indistinct  —  seemed  to 
melt  away  and  mingle  with  the  sky.  I  crossed  the  Forum  at  the 
foot  of  the  Palatine,  and  ascending  the  Via  Sacra,  passed  beneath 
the  Arch  of  Titus.  From  this  point  I  saw  below  me  the  gigantic 
outline  of  the  Coliseum,  like  a  cloud  resting  upon  the  earth.  As 
1  descended  the  hillside, 'it  grew  more  broad  and  high,  —  more 
definite  in  its  form,  and  yet  more  grand  in  its  dimensions,  —  till, 
from  the  vale  in  which  it  stands  encompassed  by  three  of  the 
seven  hills  of  Rome,  —  the  Palatine,  the  Coelian,  and  the  Esqui- 
line,  —  the  majestic  ruin  in  all  its  solitary  grandeur  ''  swelled  vast 
to  heaven." 

A  single  sentinel  was  pacing  to  and  fro  beneath  the  arched 
gateway  which  leads  to  the  interior,  and  his  measured  footsteps 
were  the  only  sound  that  broke  the  breathless  silence  of  the  night. 
What  a  contrast  with  the  scene  which  that  same  midnight  hour 
presented,  when,  in  Domitian's  time,  the  eager  populace  began  to 
gather  at  the  gates,  impatient  for  the  morning  sports  !  Xor  was 
the  contrast  within  less  striking.  Silence,  and  the  quiet  moon- 
beams, and  the  broad,  deep  shadows  of  the  ruined  wall !  Where 
were  the  senators  of  Rome,  her  matrons,  and  her  virgins  ?  where 
the  ferocious  populace  that  rent  the  air  with  shouts,  when,  in  the 
hundred  holidays  that  marked   the   dedication  of  this  imperial 


200  Composition-Rhetoric, 

slaughter-house,  five  thousand  wild  beasts  from  the  Libyan  deserts 
and  the  forests  of  Anatolia  made  the  arena  thick  with  blood? 
Where  were  the  Christian  martyrs,  that  died  wdth  prayers  upon 
their  lips,  amid  the  jeers  and  imprecations  of  their  fellow-men  ? 
where  the  barbarian  gladiators,  brought  lorth  to  the  festival  of 
blood,  and  "butchered  to  make  a  Roman  holiday"?  The  awful 
silence  answered,  "  They  are  mine ! "  The  dust  beneath  me 
answered,  "  They  are  mine  !  " 

I  crossed  to  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  amphitheatre.  A 
lamp  was  burning  in  the  little  chapel,  which  has  been  formed 
from  what  was  once  a  den  for  the  wild  beasts  of  the  Roman 
festivals.  Upon  the  steps  sat  the  old  beadsman,  the  only  tenant 
of  the  Coliseum,  who  guides  the  stranger  by  night  through  the 
long  galleries  of  this  vast  pile  of  ruins.  I  followed  him  up  a 
narrow  wooden  staircase,  and  entered  one  of  the  long  and  majestic 
corridors,  which  in  ancient  times  ran  entirely  round  the  amphi- 
theatre. Huge  columns  of  solid  mason-work,  that  seem  the  labor 
of  Titans,  support  the  flattened  arches  above ;  and  though  the 
iron  clamps  are  gone,  which  once  fastened  the  hewn  stones  to- 
gether, yet  the  columns  stand  majestic  and  unbroken,  amid  the 
ruin  around  them,  and  seem  to  defy  "the  iron  tooth  of  time." 
Through  the  arches  at  the  right,  I  could  faintly  discern  the  ruins 
of  the  baths  of  Titus  on  the  Esquiline  ;  and  from  the  left,  through 
every  chink  and  cranny  of  the  wall,  poured  in  the  brilliant  light 
of  the  full  moon,  casting  gigantic  shadows  around  me,  and  dif- 
fusing a  soft,  silvery  twilight  through  the  long  arcades.  At 
length  I  came  to  an  open  space,  where  the  arches  above  had 
crumbled  away,  leaving  the  pavement  an  unroofed  terrace  high  in 
air.  From  this  point  I  could  see  the  whole  interior  of  the  amphi- 
theatre spread  out  beneath  me,  with  such  a  soft  and  indefinite 
outline  that  it  seemed  less  an  earthly  reality  than  a  reflection  i^ 
the  bosom  of  a  lake.  The  figures  of  several  persons  below  were 
just  perceptible,  mingling  grotesquely  with  their  foreshortened 
shadows.  The  sound  of  their  voices  reached  me  in  a  whisper,  and 
the  cross  that  stands  in  the  centre  of  the  arena  looked  like  a 
dagger  thrust  into  the  sand.  I  did  not  conjure  up  the  past,  for 
the  past  had  already  become  identified  with  the  present.  It  was 
before  me  in  one  of  its  most  majestic  and  visible  forms.  The 
arbitrary  distinctions  of  time,  years,  ages,  centuries,  were  annihi- 


How  to  Say  It.  201 

lated.  I  was  a  citizen  of  Kome !  This  was  the  amphitheatre  of 
Flavius  Vespasian !  Mighty  is  the  spirit  of  the  past,  amid  the 
ruins  of  the  Eternal  City  I  —  Longfellow  :  Outre-mer. 


EXERCISE  70. 

The  following  paragraph  is  composed  entirely  of  affirm- 
ative statements.  Change  one  or  more  of  them  to  a  question 
or  an  exclamation,  and  note  the  effect. 

An  astronomical  observatory  may  seem  to  have  no  relation  to 
the  welfare  of  a  community.  Eclipses  and  planetary  transits  may 
seem  to  have  nothing  to  do  with  human  life.  When  the  invisible 
paths  of  all  stars  are  traced  by  mathematical  faith,  parallaxes  and 
multitudinous  calculations  may  seem  to  have  little  to  do  with 
men's  ordinary  business.  But  experience  will,  in  a  generation, 
show  that  those  who  first  feel  the  fruits  and  the  elevation  of  such 
pursuits  will  be  few;  but  they  will  become  broader,  deeper,  and 
better.  Through  them,  but  diluted  and  not  recognized,  the  next 
class  below  will  be  influenced  —  not  by  astronomy,  but  by  the 
moral  power  of  men  who  have  been  elevated  by  astronomy. 
Every  part  of  society  is  affected  when  men  are  built  up.  They 
impart  their  own  growth  to  whatever  they  touch.  Enlarge  men 
and  you  enlarge  everything. 

EXERCISE  71. 

In  the  following  paragraph  change  two  of  the  exclama- 
tions to  the  declarative  form.  Select  the  two  that  can  be 
so  changed,  without  injury  to  what  precedes  and  follows 
them. 

AVhen  we  are  well,  we  perhaps  think  little  about  the  Doctor,  or 
we  have  our  small  joke  at  him  and  his  drugs ;  but  let  anything  go 
wrong  with  our  body,  that  wonderful  tabernacle  in  which  our  soul 
dwells,  let  any  of  its  wheels  go  wrong,  then  off  we  fly  to  him.  If 
the  mother  thinks  her  husband  or  her  child  dying,  how  she  runs  to 
him,  and  urges  him  with  her  tears !  how  she  watches  his  face,  and 
follows  his  searching  eye,  as  he  examines  the  dear  sufferer ;  how 


202  Composition-Rhetoric, 

she  wonders  what  he  thinks  —  what  would  she  give  to  know  what 
he  knows !  how  she  wearies  for  his  visit !  how  a  cheerful  word 
from  him  makes  her  heart  leap  with  joy,  and  gives  her  spirit  and 
strength  to  watch  over  the  bed  of  distress  !  Her  whole  soul  goes 
out  to  him  in  unspeakable  gratitude  when  he  brings  back  to  her 
from  the  power  of  the  grave  her  husband  or  darling  child.  The 
Doctor  knows  many  of  our  secrets,  of  our  sorrows,  which  no  one 
else  knows  —  some  of  our  sins,  perhaps,  which  the  great  God  alone 
else  knows ;  how  many  cases  and  secrets,  how  many  lives,  he 
carries  in  his  heart  and  in  his  hands!  So  you  see  he  is  a  very 
important  person,  the  Doctor,  and  we  should  do  our  best  to  make 
the  most  of  him,  and  to  do  our  duty  to  him  and  to  ourselves. — 
John  Brown  :  Horce  Suhsecivce^  I,  391. 


EXERCISE   72. 

Change  one  or  more  of  the  following  questions  to  other 
forms  of  statement  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  injure  the 
paragraph  as  a  whole :  — 

A  Noble  Lord,  who  spoke  some  time  ago,  is  full  of  the  fire  of 
ingenuous  youth ;  and  when  he  has  modelled  the  ideas  of  a  lively 
imagination  by  further  experience,  he  will  be  an  ornament  to  his 
country  in  either  House.  He  has  said,  that  the  Americans  are  our 
children,  and  how  can  they  revolt  against  their  parents  ?  He  says, 
that  if  they  are  not  free  in  their  present  state,  England  is  not  free ; 
because  Manchester  and  other  considerable  places  are  not  repre- 
sented. So  then,  because  some  towns  in  England  are  not  repre- 
sented, America  is  to  have  no  representative  at  all.  They  are  our 
children:  but  when  children  ask  for  bread,  we  are  not  to  give  a 
stone.  Is  it  because  the  natural  resistance  of  things,  and  the 
various  mutations  of  time,  hinders  our  government,  or  any  scheme 
of  government,  from  being  any  more  than  a  sort  of  approximation 
to  the  right,  is  it  therefore  that  the  Colonies  are  to  recede  from  it 
infinitely?  When  this  child  of  ours  wishes  to  assimilate  to  its 
parent,  and  to  reflect  with  a  true  filial  resemblance  the  beauteous 
countenance  of  British  liberty,  are  we  to  turn  to  them  the  shame- 
ful parts  of  our  Constitution  ?  are  we  to  give  them  our  weakness 


IroXi^'^^^-  Mow  to  Say  It.  203 

for  their  strength?  our  opprobrtum  for  their  glory?  and  the  slough 
of  slavery,  which  we  are  not  able  to  work  off,  to  serve  them  for 
their  freedom  ? 


I  EXERCISE   73. 

/^  111  the  following  selection  combine  in  a  single  declarative 

''sentence  the  three  exclamations  at  the  close  of  the  first 

paragraph,   and   re-write   the   first  three  sentences  of  the 

second  paragraph,  breaking  up  the  balance  and  doing  away 

with  the  exclamations  :  — 

The  advocates  of  Charles,  like  the  advocates  of  other  male- 
factors against  w^hom  overwhelming  evidence  is  produced,  gener- 
ally decline  all  controversy  about  the  facts,  and  content  themselves 
with  calling  testimony  to  character.  He  had  so  many  private 
virtues !  And  had  James  the  Second  no  private  virtues  ?  Was 
Oliver  Cromwell,  his  bitterest  enemies  themselves  being  judges, 
destitute  of  private  virtues  ?  And  what,  after  all,  are  the  virtues 
ascribed  to  Charles  ?  A  religious  zeal,  not  more  sincere  than  that 
of  his  son,  and  fully  as  weak  and  narrow-minded,  and  a  few  of  the 
ordinary  household  decencies  which  half  the  tombstones  in  Eng- 
land claim  for  those  who  lie  beneath  them.  A  good  father !  A 
good  husband!  Ample  apologies  indeed  for  fifteen  years  of 
persecution,  tyranny,  and  falsehood ! 

We  charge  him  with  having  broken  his  coronation  oath ;  and 
we  are  told  that  he  kept  his  marriage  vow !  We  accuse  him  of 
having  given  up  his  people  to  the  merciless  inflictions  of  the  most 
hot-headed  and  hard-hearted  of  prelates ;  and  the  defence  is,  that 
he  took  his  little  son  on  his  knee  and  kissed  him !  We  censure 
him  for  having  violated  the  articles  of  the  Petition  of  Right,  after 
having,  for  good  and  valuable  consideration,  promised  to  observe 
them;  and  we  are  informed  that  he  was  accustomed  to  hear 
prayers  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning !  It  is  to  such  considerations 
as  these,  together  with  his  Vandyke  dress,  his  handsome  face,  and 
his  peaked  beard,  that  he  owes,  we  verily  believe,  most  of  his 
popularity  with  the  present  generation. 

For  ourselves,  we  own  that  we  do  not  understand  the  common 
phrase,  a  good  man,  but  a  bad  king.     We  can  as  easily  conceive 


Composition'RJietoric, 

a  good  man  and  an  unnatural  father,  or  a  good  man  and  a 
treacherous  friend.  We  cannot,  in  estimating  the  character  of  an 
individual,  leave  out  of  consideration  his  conduct  in  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  human  relations ;  and  if  in  that  relation  w^e  find  him 
to  have  been  selfish,  cruel,  and  deceitful,  we  shall  take  the  liberty 
to  call  him  a  bad  man,  in  spite  of  all  his  temperance  at  table,  and 
all  his  regularity  at  chapel.  —  M ac aulay. 


EXERCISE  74. 

What  sameness  of  structure  do  you  notice  in  the  be- 
ginnings of  the  sentences  of  the  following  paragraphs  ? 
Revise,  re-combine,  and  re- write  to  introduce  variety  of 
sentence-beginnings. 

England  showed  no  relenting  in  her  treatment  of  the  Americans. 
The  King  gave  no  reply  to  the  address  of  Congress.  The  Houses 
of  Lords  and  of  Commons  refused  even  to  allow  that  address  to  be 
read  in  their  hearing.  The  King  announced  his  firm  purpose  to 
reduce  the  refractory  colonists  to  obedience.  Parliament  gave 
loyal  assurances  of  support  to  the  blinded  monarch.  AH  trade 
with  the  colonies  was  forbidden.  All  American  ships  and  cargoes 
might  be  seized  by  those  who  were  strong  enough  to  do  so.  The 
alternative  presented  to  the  American  choice  was  without  disguise 
—  the  Americans  had  to  fight  for  their  liberty,  or  forego  it.  The 
people  of  England  had,  in  those  days,  no  control  over  the  govern- 
ment of  their  country.  All  this  was  managed  for  them  by  a  few 
great  families.  Their  allotted  part  was  to  toil  hard,  pay  their 
taxes,  and  be  silent.  If  they  had  been  permitted  to  speak,  their 
voice  would  have  vindicated  the  men  who  asserted  their  right  of 
self-government  —  a  right  which  Englishmen  themselves  were  not 
to  enjoy  for  many  a  long  year. 

John  Stuart  Blackie  has  been  for  the  greater  part  of  the  century 
an  engaging  figure  in  scholarship  and  literature.  Born  in  the  year 
1809,  and  educated  at  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh,  he  spent  many 
years  in  Germany  and  Italy,  a  devotee  of  what  was  then  a  new 
science,  comparative  philology.  A  profuse  writer  throughout  his 
entire  life,  his  place  is  in  the  overlapping  field  in  which  pedagogics 


How  to  Say  It.  205 

and  poetry  commingle.  One  of  a  group  in  which  Wolf  and  Max 
MUller  are  foremost  of  the  Germans,  Blackie,  like  them  an  etymol- 
ogist, pursuing  investigations  to  which  the  chief  emphasis  was 
given  by  the  Grimm  brothers,  has  been,  far  more  than  any  of  his 
co-workers  in  the  sciencg,  oiLlaagiitag^,  an  appreciator  of  the  isp* 
of  literal 


ris  quite  natural  that  the  proposition  to  pay  members  of  Par- 
liament should  be  regarded  by  Americans  as  a  sensible  one.  It  is 
our  custom  to  pay  our  Senators  and  Congressmen,  and  we  instinc- 
tively assume  that  any  system  in  vogue  here  ought  to  be  in  vogue 
everywhere.  But  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the  British 
Government  have  dropped  their  bill  embodying  this  proposi- 
tion. The  fact  is  that  the  old  method  has  worked  so  well  in 
England  that  until  it  can  be  shown  to  have  resulted  in  serious 
injustice,  there  will  be  no  general  disposition  to  change  it.  The 
theory  is  that  legislators  should  give  their  services  to  the  nation, 
and  that  if  they  are  paid,  undesirable  candidates,  who  care  only 
for  the  money,  will  be  elected.  It  is  possible  that  such  a  theory 
may  be  false,  but  it  is  likely  that  its  supporters  would  have  little 
difficulty  in  collecting  statistics  enough  in  this  country  to  indicate 
that  paying  legislators  does  not  always  conduce  to  getting  the 
ablest  men  into  office. 


EXERCISE  75^      V^/T^  , 


Write  about  300  words  on  one  of  the  topics  in  Exercises 
b^,  64,  and  Q>^,  not  already  used.  After  writing,  notice  how 
many  types  of  sentences  you  have  employed.  Revise  your 
work  for  variety  of  sentence-structure. 

LESSOR  22.     tWAXO^ 

I   Choice  of  Expression. 

The  English  language  has  a  much  larger  stock  of  words 
than  any  other  language  ever  used  by  man.  Often  a  given 
idea  will  be  represented  quite  accurately  in  English  by  either 
of  two  words,  sometimes  by  any  one  of  three.     Thus  we 


206  Coynposition-Rhetoric, 

speak  of  a  certain  class  of  our  population  as  the  poor,  the 
needy,  the  indigent,  meaning  the  same  thing  no  matter  which 
one  of  the  three  words  we  use  ;  we  speak  of  a  laboring  man's 
pay,  wages,  earnings;  of  the  meaning,  sense,  signification  of 
a  passage  of  scripture;  of  2b fitting, proper,  appropriate  exer- 
cise ;  something  hinders,  delays,  retards  us ;  we  become  tired, 
weary,  fatigued.  One  needs  a  stock  of*  equivalent  words  of 
this  kind  for  the  sake  of  variety. 

Other  sets  of  words  in  English  represent  the  same  idea, 
but  with  different  degrees  of  intensity.  Thus  empty,  vain, 
futile  hopes;  sameness,  uniformity,  monotony;  an  univise, 
inconsiderate,  silly,  foolish,  absurd,  ridiculous  statement ;  to 
like,  admire,  love;  wealth,  riches,  opulence;  to  discountenance, 
deprecate,  deplore,  lament,  bewail  an  act;  vexed,  provoked, 
indignant,  angry;  it  is  not  impossible,  it  is  j^ossible,  it  is  not 
unlikely,  it  is  likely,  it  is  not  improbable,  it  is  probable,  it 
is  certain.  One  needs  to  learn  to  distinguish  degrees  of 
meaning  in  words  so  as  not  to  over-state  or  under-state  one's 
self.  When  a  familiar  word  does  not  quite  satisfy  us,  does 
not  adequately  or  exactly  express  our  meaning,  we  may  be 
sure  that  there  is  another  more  fitting ;  and  here  a  book  of 
synonyms,  or  the  dictionary  will  help  us. 

Other  sets  of  words  represent  the  same  idea  in  different 
applications.  Thus  while  the  words  forgive,  j^ardon,  con- 
done, excuse,  acquit,  absolve,  remit,  overlook,  pass  over,  repre- 
sent the  same  idea,  each  has  its  particular  application,  as 
will  be  seen  by  consulting  the  dictionary.  So  with  house, 
residence,  habitation,  mayision;  wages,' salary,  fee,  stipend; 
fright,  scare,  panic;  dread,  dismay,  consternation;  guess, 
think,  suppose;  meeting,  assembly,  audience,  congregation; 
choose,  prefer,  select;  hanged,  hung ;  allude,  refer;  healthy, 
healthful,  wholesome;  less,  feiDcr ;  two,  a  couple,  a  pair ;  com- 
pany, gathering,  crew,  gang,  band,  party ;  avoiv,  acknowledge, 
confess;  only,  alone. 

One  may  enlarge  one's  stock  of  words  by  looking  up 


V 

How  to  Say  It.  207 

the  new  words  one  reads,  by  trying  to  think  of  equivalent 
expressions  for  them,  and  by  recalling  and  using  them  as 
they  may  be  needed  in  one's  own  writing  and  speaking. 
We  should  try  to  make  use  of  all  of  our  language  resources ; 
but  it  should  be  with  a  knowledge  of  the  meanings,  applica- 
tions, and  implications  of  the  words  we  use. 

Some  words  have  formed  close  associations  with  other 
words.  Thus,  take  steps,  contract  habits,  pursue  a  course, 
turn  to  account,  bear  malice,  pass  over  in  silence,  win  prizes. 
This  is  especially  true  of  words  used  in  connection  with 
prepositions :  agree  with  a  person,  agree  to  a  proposition, 
differ  from,  comply  with,  confide  in  a  friend,  confide  a  secret 
to  a  friend,  call  on,  dissent  from,  free  from,  adapted  to  a 
thing,  adapted  for  a  purpose,  die  of  a  disease,  die  by  one's 
own  hand,  regard  for  a  person,  in  regard  to  this,  reconcile 
to.  Some  words  call  imperatively  for  others  :  as  —  so,  either 
—  or,  neither  —  nor,  hardly  —  when,  the  same  that  I  saw,  the 
same  as  before,  such  —  as,  I  do  not  know  that  I  will,  different 
from,  other  than. 

Sometimes  the  choice  lies  between  an  idiomatic  and  a 
bookish,  or  between  a  simple  and  a  pretentious  expression ; 
here  the  idiomatic  or  simple  expression  is  preferable.  Get 
used  to,  by  all  odds,  get  rid  of,  hard  up,  get  out  of  the  way  of, 
get  up,  go  to  bed,  make  money,  —  these  expressions  are  not 
to  be  avoided. 

Again  the  choice  may  lie  between  a  slang  expression 
which  rises  to  the  lips  only  too  readily,  and  a  standard 
expression  which  requires  some  effort  to  recall.  Here  the 
choice  should  fall  upon  the  standard  expression ;  the  effort 
is  well  spent  in  calling  it  to  mind.  Besides  being,  in  many 
cases,  vulgar  in  meaning  or  in  implication,  slang  begets 
general  carelessness  in  the  use  of  language.  It  encourages 
laziness  in  the  user  by  saving  him  the  trouble  of  finding 
exact  words  for  his  meaning.  It  prevents  him  from  increas- 
ing his  stock  of  good  words.  __—- ■ — X""^ 


208  Composition-Rhetoric, 

Especial  care  is  needed  in  the  choice  of  the  words  will  and 
shall,  would  and  should,  who,  which,  and  that. 


iv^ 


WTTT.    AND  SHAT.y:. 


In  the  simple  future,  shall  is  used  in  the  first  person, 
and  will  in  the  second  and  third  persons ;  thus,  "  I,  or  we, 
shall  enjoy  reading  the  book,"  and  "  You,  he,  or  they  will 
enjoy  reading  the  book.''  In  sentences  expressing  deter- 
mination, will  is  used  in  the  first  person,  and  shall  in 
the  second  and  third  persons ;  thus,  "  I,  or  we,  will  obey " 
and  "  You,  he,  or  they  shall  obey." 

In  questions,  the  same  distinction  between  shall  and  ivill 
as  expressing  simple  futurity  or  determination  is  seen  in 
the  following :  "  Shall  I,  or  we  ?  "  (simple  future,  or  equiva- 
lent to  "  do  you  wish  me  or  us  to  ?  ")  ;  "  Will  I  ?  "  (ironical) ; 
"  Shall  you  subscribe  ?  "  (mere  information  desired)  ;  "  Will 
you  subscribe  ?  "  (I  want  you  to) ;  "  Shall  he  or  they  ?  "  (Do 
you  wish  him  or  them  to  ?) ;  "  Will  he  or  they  ? "  (mere 
information  desired). 

In  secondary  clauses  the  reporter  uses  will,  if  the  speaker 
used  or  would  have  used  tvill;  shall  if  the  speaker  used 
or  would  have  used  shall  Thus:  Speaker,  —  "I  shall 
enjoy  reading  the  book";  Reporter,  —  "He  says  he  shall 
enjoy  reading  the  book";  Speaker,  —  "I  will  not  allow  it" ; 
Reporter,  — "  He  says  he  will  not  allow  it "  ;  Speaker,  — 
"You  (or  they)  shall  seek  in  vain  for  it";  Reporter,  —  "He 
says  you  (or  they)  shall  seek,"  etc. 

Should  corresponds  to  shall,  and  ivould  to  will,  following 
corresponding  rules.  Thus,  in  reporting  the  sentences  just 
given,  the  correct  form  would  be,  "  He  said  he  should  enjoy 
reading  the  book,"  "He  said  he  would  not  allow  it,"  "He 
said  you  (or  they)  should  seek  in  vain  for  it."  In  con- 
ditional clauses  exceptional  care  is  needed,  though  the  same 
distinctions  are  maintained. 


How  to  Say  It.  209 

WHO,  WHICH,  THAT. 

The  relative  pronoun  that  is  restrictive,  and  introduces  a 
clause  that  closely  defines,  limits,  or  qualifies  the  antecedent. 
A  ^/ia^clause  affects  the  antecedent  as  an  adjective  would 
affect  the  antecedent.  Who  and  which  are  co-ordinating 
relatives,  and  introduce,  not  a  modifying  thought,  but  an 
additional  thought  of  equal  or  greater  importance.  Who 
is  equivalent  to  a  conjunction  plus  a  personal  pronoun,  and 
may  be  translated  by  the  words  and  he,  and  they,  though  he, 
though  they,  for  he,  since  they,  etc.,  which  words  may  often 
be  used,  with  a  gain  to  clearness,  instead  of  loho.  Which 
is  equivalent  to  a  conjunction  plus  the  word  it,  this,  these, 
those,  and  may  be  translated  by  the  words  and  this,  and  it, 
and  these,  a  fact  that,  a  circumstance  that,  etc.,  which  words 
may  often  be  used,  with  a  gain  to  clearness,  instead  of 
which.  Who  and  which  are  sometimes  used  restrictively, 
without  loss  of  clearness,  instead  of  the  strictly  correct  that 
when  the  use  of  that  would  make  a  harsh  combination,  when 
the  word  that  has  already  been  used  in  another  function  in 
the  same  sentence,  and  when  the  use  of  that  would  throw  a 

^^.^ui^^sition  tqjbhojefi^of  the  sentanc 

"'f  The  aid  of  punctuation  may  be  called  in  to  distinguish 
restrictive  from  co-ordinative  who  or  which.  Since  a  comma 
is  usually  inserted  before  a  co-ordinate  relative,  the  omission 
of  punctuation  before  who  or  ivhicJi  will  give  to  the  clause  a 
restrictive  force.  —,_ 

Choose  words  that  fit  your  meaning  with  exactness.     Distinguish        j  j 
degrees  of  intensity  in  words.     Use  idiomatic  expressions.     Avoid        ^ 


EXERCISE  76. 


In  the  following  choose  the  word  in  parenthesis  that 
best  fits  the  context.  Be  ready  to  give  reasons.  Consult 
the  dictionary  or  book  of  synonyms. 


210  Composition-Rhetoric. 

Caleb  would  have  {remarked  upon,  said  something  of,  made  a 
statement  about,  spoken  of,  deprecated'\  the  disrepair  of  the  chamber, 
but  was  silenced  by  the  [irritation,  irritable  look,  irritated  look, 
impatience,  discontent']  which  was  [seen,  expressed,  shown,  apparent] 
in~Ris  master's  countenance;  he  lighted  the  way  trembling  and 
in  silence^  placed  the  lamp  on  the  table  of  the  [deserted,  abandoned, 
vacant,  empty]  room,  and  was  about  to  [try,  attempt]  some  arrange- 
ment of  the  bed,  when  his  master  bid  him  [go,  begone,  withdraw] 
in  a  tone  that  admitted  of  no  [delaji^  hesitation].  The  old  man 
[luent,  retired,  ivithdrew],  not  to  rest  but  to  prayer;  and  [fi'om 
time  to  time,  ever  and  anon,  now  and  then]  crept  to  the  door  of  the 
apartment  [in  order  to  find  out,  to  find  out]  whether  Ravenswood 
had  [gone  to  repose,  become  quiet,  retired].  His  measured  heavy  step 
[upon,  on,  across]  the  floor  was  only  interrupted  by  deep  groans ; 
and  the  [repeated,  reiterated,  frequent]  stamps  of  the  heel  of  his 
heavy  boot,  [indicated,  intimated,  proved,  showed]  too  clearly,  that 
the  wretched  [occujjant,  inmate,  tenant]  was  abandoning  himself 
at  such  moments  to  paroxysms  of  uncontrolled  agony.  The 
old  man  [thought,  guessed,  believed,  was  sure]  that  the  morning  for 
which  he  longed  would  never  [cdhe,  dawn,  have  daivned]  ;  but 
time,  whose  course  rolls  on  with  equal  current,  however  it  may 
seem  more  rapid  or  more  slow  to  mortal  [inind,  apprehension], 
brought  the  [daion,  day]  at  last,  and  spread  a  ruddy  light  on  the 
broad  [margin,  vercje,  shore,  edge]  of  the  glistening  ocean.  5^ 

As  I  live  in  a  place  where  even  the  ordinary  tattle  of  the  town 
arrives  not  till  it  is  stale,  and  which  produces  no  events  of  its  own, 
you  [will,  shall]  not  desire  any  excuse  from  me  for  writing  so  sel- 
dom, especially  as  of  all  people  living  I  know  you  are  the  least  a 
friend  to  letters  spun  out  of  one's  own  brains,  with  all  the  toil  and 
constraint  that  accompanies  sentimental  productions.  I  have  been 
here  at  Stoke  a  few  days  (where  I  [will,  shall]  continue  good  part 
of  the  summer) ;  and  having  put  an  end  to  a  thing  whose  begin- 
ning you  have  seen  long  ago,  I  immediately  send  it  to  you.  You 
[will,  shall] ,  T  hope,  look  upon  it  in  the  light  of  a  thing  with  an 
end  to  it :  a  merit  that  most  of  my  writings  have  wanted  and  are 
like  to  want,  but  which  this  epistle,  I  am  determined  [loill,  shall] 
not  want,  when  it  tells  you  that  I  am  ever  yours, 

T.  Gray. 


"A 


How  to  Say  It,  211 


Sir  Thomas  Payton  came  to  me  and  told  me  my  lord  [would, 
should']  fight  with  me  on  horseback  with  single  sword ;  and,  said 
he,  "I  [willf  shalV]  be  his  second;  where  is  yours?"  I  replied 
that  neither  his  lordship  nor  myself  brought  over  any  great  horses 
with  us;  that  I  knew  he  might  much  better  borrow  one  than 
myself;  howbeit,  as  soon  as  he  showed  me  the  place,  he  \_wouldy 
should']  find  me  there  on  horseback  or  on  foot;  whereupon  both 
of  us  riding  together  upon  two  geldings  to  the  side  of  a  wood,  Pay- 
ton  said  he  chose  that  place,  and  the  time,  break  of  day  the  next 
morning.  I  told  him  I  \_would,  should]  fail  neither  place  nor  time, 
though  I  knew  not  where  to  get  a  better  nag  than  the  horse  I  rode 
on ;  "  and  as  for  a  second,  I  [will,  shaJU]  trust  to  your  nobleness, 
Who,  I  know  [will,  shall]  see  fair  play  betwixt  us,  though  you 
come  on  his  side."  f^  . 

The  lieutenant,  though  he  did  not  know  me,  suspected  I  had 
some  private  quarrel,  and  that  I  desired  this  horse  to  fight  on,  and 
thereupon  told  me,  "  Sir,  whosoever  you  are,  you  seem  to  be  a 
person  of  worth,  and  you  [will,  shall]  have  the  best  horse  in  the 
stable ;  and  if  you  have  a  quarrel  and  want  a  second,  I  offer 
myself  to  serve  you  upon  another  horse,  and  if  you  [will,  shall] 
let  me  go  along  with  you  upon  these  terms,  I  [ivill,  shall]  ask  no 
pawn  of  you  for  the  horse."  I  told  him  I  [luoidd,  should]  use  no 
second,  and  I  desired  him  to  accept  one  hundred  pieces,  which  I 
had  then  about  me,  in  pawn  for  the  horse,  and  he  [would,  should] 
hear  from  me  shortly  again ;  and  that  though  I  did  not  take  his 
noble  offer  of  coming  along  with  me,  I  [would,  should]  evermore 
rest  much  obliged  to  him  :  whereupon  giving  him  my  purse  with 
the  money  in  it,  I  got  upon  his  horse,  and  left  my  nag  besides  with 
him. 

The  Castello  di  San  Giorgio,  or,  as  it  [should,  might,  could,  would] 
more  properly  have  been  [designated,  called,  named],  the  "  Casa,  "  or 
Villa  di  San  Giorgio,  was  [built,  erected,  constructed]  upon  the  sum- 
mit of  a  small  conical  hill,  amid  the  sloping  bases  of  the  Apen- 
nines, at  a  [jmrt^  portion,  poinf\  of  their  long  range  where  the 
[tops,  summits]  were  low  and  green.  In  that  delightful  [place, 
spot,  country,  neighborhood,  region,  district]  the  cultivation  and  rich- 
ness of  the  plain  is  united  to  the  wildness  and  [prettiness,  sublim- 
ity, beauty,  attractiveness]  of  the  hills.     The  heat  is  tempered  in  the 


212  Composition-Rhetoric. 

shady  valleys  and  under  the  \ dense ^  thick,  solid,  impenetrable^  woods. 
A  delicious  [humidity,  wetness,  dampness,  moisture']  and  soft  haze 
hangs  about  these  dewy,  grassy  places,  which  the  sun  has  power 
to  [warm,  heat]  and  gladden,  but  not  to  parch.  Flowers  of  every 
hue  cover  the  ground  beneath  the  oaks  and  elms.  Nightingales 
sing  in  the  thickets  of  wild  rose  and  clematis,  and  the  groves  of 
laurel  and  of  the  long-leaved  olives  are  [full  of,  swarming  wi^f 
crowded  loith]  small  creatures  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  life  and 
warmth.  Little  brooks  and  rippling  streams,  half  [hidden,  con- 
cealed, obscured]  by  the  tangled  thickets,  and  turned  from  their 
courses  by  the  mossy  rocks,  flow  down  from  the  hill  ravines,  as 
joyful  and  clear  as  in  that  old  time  when  each  was  the  care  of 
some  [defending,  protecting,  shielding]  nymph  or  rural  god.  In  the 
waters  of  the  placid  lake  are  reflected  the  shadows  of  the  hills,  and 
the  tremulous  shimmer  of  waving  woods.    -  -      A  J     'i,/-^ 


EXERCISE  77. 

Kead  the  following  paragraphs  until  you  have  complete 
possession  of  the  thought.  Then  re-write,  substituting 
other  expressions  of  equivalent  meaning  for  those  italicized. 
The  change  in  phraseology  may  compel  a  change  in  gram- 
matical structure. 
r 

\The  national  character,  in  some  of  its  most  important  elements, 
must  be  formed,  elevated,  and  strengthened  from  the  materials 
which  history  presents.  Are  we  to  be  eternally  ringing  the  changes 
upon  Marathon  and  Thermopylae,  and  going  back  to  find  in  obscure 
texts  of  Greek  and  Latin  the  great  exemplars  of  patriotic  virtue  ? 
/  rejoice  that  we  can  find  them  nearer  home,  in  our  own  country, 
on  our  own  soil;  that  strains  of  the  noblest  feeling  that  ever 
swelled  in  the  breast  of  man  are  breathing  to  us,  out  of  every 
page  of  our  country's  history,  in  the  native  eloquence  of  our 
mother-tongue ;  that  the  colonial  and  the  provincial  councils  of 
America  exhibit  to  us  models  of  the  spirit  and  character  which 
gave  Greece  and  Rome  their  name  and  their  praise  among  the 
nations.  Here  we  ought  to  go  for  our  instruction;  the  lesson  is 
plain  and  easily  applied.  \ 


How  to  Say  It,  213 


& 


J  do  not  mean  that  these  examples  are  to  destroy  the  interest  with 
which  we  read  the  history  of  ancient  times ;  they  possibly  increase 
that  interest,  by  the  singular  contrasts  they  exhibit.  We  ought 
to  seek  our  great  practical  lessons  of  patriotism  at  home ;  out  of 
the  exploits  and  sacrifices,  of  which  our  own  country  is  the  theatre ; 
out  of  the  characters  of  our  own  fathers.  Them  we  know,  the 
natural^  unaffected,  —  the  citizen  heroes.  We  know  what  happy 
firesides  they  left  for  the  cheerless  camp.  We  know  with  what 
pacific  habits  they  dared  the  perils  of  the  field.  There  is  no  mystery, 
no  romance,  no  madness,  under  the  name  of  chivalry,  about  them. 
It  is  all  resolute,  manly  resistance,  —  for  the  sake  of  conscience 
and  principle,  —  not  merely  of  an  overwhelming  power,  but  of  all 
the  force  of  long-rooted  habits,  and  the  native  love  of  order  and 
peace.  —  Everett  :  First  Battles  of  the  Revolution.  f^^T 

r  .  .  4W»ii*'^" 

\^  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  is  so^ncise  and  sb  gen- 
eral in  its  terms,  that  even  ,had  America  been  as  Momyl^'ovinQ  a 
country  as  China,  many  quMtictfi's  must  have  xtrisdn  on  ^Jbhe  inter- 
'^'yrda'fidK^^i  the  fundamental  law  which  would  have  mdaij^ed  its 
aspect.  But  America  has  been  the  most  swiftly  expanding  of  all 
countries.  Hence  the  questions  that  have  presented  themselves 
have  often  related  to  matters  which  the  framers  of  the  Constitution 
could  not  have  contemplated.  Wiser  than  Justinian  before  them, 
or  Napoleon  after  them,  they  foresaw  that  their  work  would  need 
to  be  elucidated  by  judicial  commentary.  But  they  were  far  from 
conjecturing  the  enormous  strain  to  which  some  of  their  expres- 
sions would  be  subjected  in  the  effort  to  apply  them  to  new  facts.  — 
Bryce  :  American  Commonwealth,  I,  chap.  XXIII.  [ 

Nothing  was  ever  "  born  anew  "  in  Celia  Thaxter  which  she  did 
not  strive  to  share  Imih  others.     She  could  keep  nothing  but  secrets  \ 

to  herself.  Joys,  experiences  of  every  kind,  sorrows  and  misfort- 
unes, except  when  they  could  darken  the  lives  of  others,  were  all 
brought,  open-handed  and  open-hearted,  to  those  she  loved.  Her 
generosity  knew  no  limits.  —  Atlantic,  75  :  263. 

In  the  Netherlands  a  man  of  small  capacity,  with  bits  of  wood 
and  leather,  will,  in  a  few  moments^  construct  a  toy  that,  with  the 
pressure  of  the  finger  and  thumb,  will  cry  *'  cuckoo !  cuckoo ! " 
With  less  of  ingenuity  and  inferior  materials  the  people  of  Ohio 


214  Compositiorir  Rhetoric. 

have  made  a  toy  that  will,  without  much  pressure,  cry  "  Previous 
question,  Mr.  Speaker!  Previous  question,  Mr.  Speaker!" — John 
Randolph. 

EXERCISE  78. 

Fill  the  blanks  with  wlio,  whom,  which,  or  that,  and  select 
the  fitting  words  from  the  brackets :  — 

A  babe  was  born  to  Danae,  a  smiling  boy  she  named 

Perseus.     For  four  years  she  kept  him  hidden,  and  not  even  the 

women  brought  food  to  the  hiding-place  knew  about  him. 

But  one  day  the  king,  Danae's  father,  chanced  to  pass  and  heard 
the  child's  prattle.  When  he  learned  the  truth,  he  was  very  much 
alarmed ;   for   it   had  been  foretold  that   "  the   son   of  his   own 

daughter  "  should  kill  him.     The  only  way  to  save  himself  

he  could  think  of,  was  to  put  the  child  to  death. 

So  he  bade  the  servants  were  with  him  to  make  a  large 

water-tight  chest.  Into  this  he  put  Danae  and  Perseus  and  cruelly 
set  them  adrift  on  a  stormy  sea,  hoping  that  they  would  be 
drowned,  or  carried  far  away.  But  they  were  not  drowned. 
After  three   days  they  drifted  toward  some  islands  and  finally 

landed  on  one was  inhabited  by  a  kind  people took  care 

of  them. 

Perseus  grew  to  manhood,  and  became  a  leader  of  the  people 

had  saved  him  and  his  mother.     He  was  exceedingly  strong, 

and  performed  many   astounding  athletic  feats gained  him 

great  renown.  Hearing  at  one  time  that  the  king  of  a  far-away 
country  had  announced  a  great  athletic  contest,  Perseus  took  ship 

and  went  thither  to  try  his  skill  against  the  other  contestants 

were  present  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

No  one  in  that  country  knew this  noble  young  stranger 

might  be,  but  all  wondered  at  the  skill  -^ he  displayed  in  the 

games  and  contests.     He  easily  won  all  of  the  prizes.     In  the  last 

contest,  was  between  Perseus  and  another  quoit  thrower, 

Perseus  threw  a  heavy  quoit  a  great  deal  Ifarlher,  fitrih^']  than 
any  had  been  thrown  before.     It  fell  in  the  crowd  of  on-lookers 

and  struck  a  stranger  was  standing  there  with  the  others. 

The  stranger  sank  to  the  ground,  dead.  Perseus  \jvas  sJiocked, 
felt  bad,  was  horrified^  was  pained,  was  grieved'}  at  having  killed 


How  to  Say  It,  215 

the  stranger,  Perseus   thought   an   innocent   spectator  like 

the  others.     What  was  his  sorrow  when  he  discovered  that  the 
stranger  was   none   other    \tliany   htt]    his   grandfather,    Danae's 

father, had  come  to  the  contests  unattended  and  in  disguise. 

So  the  prophecy had  been  spoken  many  years  before  was 

fulfilled.     Danae's  father,  the  king,  had  been  killed  by  "  the  son 
of  his  own  daughter." 

EXERCISE  79.    piAjL^     *- 

Substitute  adjectives  for  the  italicized  phrases,  in  the 
following :  — 

LOf  all  the  amusements  which  can  possibly  be  imagined  for  a 
man  of  the  laboring  class,  after  his  daily  toil,  or,  in  its  intervals, 
there  is  nothing  like  reading  a  book  of  an  enteriaining  character, 
supposing  him  to  have  a  taste  for  it,  and  supposing  him  to  have 
the  book  to  read.  It  calls  for  no  exertion  ojtiieoody;oi.  which  he 
has  had  enough  or  too  much.  It  relieves  his  home  of  its  dulness 
and  sameness,  which,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  is  what  drives  him 
to  the  ale-house,  to  his  jwi  ruin  and  his  family's.  It  transports 
him  into  a  scene  of  (DWmierf gayer,  mort  diversified  and  interesting 
na^wr^,  and  while  he  enjoys  himself  there,  he  may  forget  the  evils 
of  the  present  fully  as  much  as  if  he  were  in  an  ever  so  [disgraceful 
state  of  intoxication,  with  the  great  advantage  of  finding  himself 
the  next  day  with  his  money  in  his  pocket,  or  at  least  laid  out  in 
real  necessaries  and  comforts  for  himself  and  his  family, —.and 
without  a  headache.  N^ay,  it  accompanies  him  to  his  work 
next  day,  and  if  the  bopk  he  has  been  reading  be  anything  ahh^ 
the  very  idlest  and  iigJitest,  gives  him  something  to  think  of  besides 
the  mere  mechanical  drudgery  of  his,  every-day  occupation, — 
something  he  can  enjoy  while  frofn  Homey  and  look  forward  with 
pleasure  to  return  to  7] 

EXERCISE  80. 

Use  each  of  the  sets  of  words  (given  in  the  second  para- 
graph  of  Lesson  27)  in  a  brief  paragraph,  having  especial 
regard  to  exact  statement.  In  case  of  doubt  consult  the 
dictionary  or  a  book  of  synonyms. 


216  Composition-Rhetoric, 

EXERCISE  81. 

Use  the  sets  of  words  (given  in  tlie  third  paragraph  of 
Lesson  27)  so  as  to  show  that  you  understand  the  particular 
application  of  each  word.  In  case  of  doubt  consult  the 
dictionary  or  a  book  of  synonyms. 

EXERCISE  82. 

Examine  a  recent  number  of  a  magazine  for  examples  of 
"  disagree  with/'  "  different  from/'  and  other  expressions  in 
the  fifth  paragraph  of  Lesson  27. 


Afj^^ 


Write  brief  paragraphs  on  the  following  themes,  showing 
"the  accurate  use  of  (1)  may,  might  ;  (2)  can,  could  ;  (3) 
raise,  raised,  has  raised,  ris6,  rose,  has  risen  ;  (4)  sit,  sat,  has 
sat,  set  ;  (5)  lie,  lay,  has  lain,  lay,  laid,  has  laid  :  — 

1.  A  lost  opportunity. 

My  choice  of  a  profession. 
The  next  presidential  nominee. 

2.  My  friend's  accomplishments. 
Feats  of  strength. 

The  opportunities  of  an  educated  man  or  woman. 

3.  What  makes  the  prices  of  commodities  go  up  and 

down  ? 
Taking  an  early  train.  , 
Bicycling  for  girls. 

4.  An  obstinate  old  hen. 
A  hot  day's  fishing. 
Setting  the  table  for  dinner. 

5.  How  bread  is  made. 
After  the  tornado. 

How  a  mason  builds  a  brick  wall. 


Sow  to  Say  It. 


217 


EXERCISE   84. 

1.  Write  a  brief  account  of  a  tiresome  journey  or  walk, 
using  in  different  sentences  the  words  sameness^  uniformity^ 
monotony,  each  in  a  sense  that  would  preclude  the  use  of  the 
other  two. 

2.  A  brief  paragraph  on  manners  in  the  school-room,  in 
which  you  mention  some  particular  thing  to  be  discoun- 
tenanced, another  to  be  deprecated,  another  to  be  deplored. 

3.  Write  out  the  following :  Arrived  at  school ;  found  I 
had  forgotten  book ;  was  [angry,  provoked,  vexed']  with  my- 
self for  there  was  not  time  to  go  back  for  it  and  I  needed 
it;  went  to  class  without  it;  asked  a  classmate  to  [loan, 
lend']  me  her  book ;  she  [refused,  declined] ;  this  made  me 
[angry,  indignant]  as  she  [could,  might]  have  [accommo- 
dated, favored]  me  in  this ;  was  called  on  to  translate  as  I 
had  [expected,  anticipated]  that  I  [would,  should]  he,  and 
failed  for  [lack,  want,  need]  of  a  book.  I  [will,  shall]  be 
obliged  to  make  up  the  lesson. 


EXERCISE  85. 


w*4r^^ 


Two  drafts  of  portions  of  Lincoln's  first  Inaugural  Ad- 
dress are  printed  below  in  parallel  columns.^  After  com- 
paring them,  give  reasons  for  the  changes  so  far  as  you  are 
able. 


It  follows  from  these  views 
that  no  State,  upon  its  own  mere 
motion,  can  lawfully  get  out  of 
the  Union ;  that  resolves  and 
ordinances  to  that  effect  are 
legally  nothing;  and  that  acts 


It  follows  from  these  views 
that  no  State,  upon  its  own  mere 
motion,  can  lawfully  get  out  of 
the  Union ;  that  resolves  and 
ordinances  to  that  effect  are 
legally  void;  and  that  acts  of 


1  From  Abraham  Lincoln :  A  History,  by  John  G.  Nicolay  and  John 
Hay  (The  Century  Co.,  N.Y. :  1890),  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  237-344,  by  permission 
of  the  authors. 


218 


Composition- Rhetoric. 


of  violence,  within  any  State  or 
States,  against  the  authority  of 
the  United  States,  are  insurrec- 
tionary or  trc^^^^nable.  accord- 
ing to  circumstaAces. 

I  therefore  consider  that  the 
Union  is  unbroken ;  and,  tb  the 
extent  of  my  ability,  I  shall  take 
care^that  the  laws  of  the  Union 
be  faithfully  executed  in  all  the 
States.  Doing  this  I  deem  to 
be  only  a  simple  duty  on  my 
part ;  and  I  shall  perform  it,  so 
far  as  practicable,  unless  my 
rightful  masters,  the  American 
people,  shall  withhold  the  requi- 
site means,  or  in  sorue  tangible 
way  direct  the  contrary.  I  trust 
this  will  not  be  regarded  as  a 
menace,  but  only  as  the  declared 
purpose  of  the  Union  that  it 
will  have  its  own  and  defend 
itself.  .  .  . 


I  close.  We  are  not,  we  must 
not  be,  aliens  or  enemies,  but  fel- 
low-countrymen and  brethren. 
Although  passion  has  strained 
our  bonds  of  affection  too  hardly, 
they  must  not,  I  am  sure  they 
will  not  be  broken.  The  mys- 
tic chords  which,  proceeding 
from  so  many  battle-fields  and 
so  many  patriot  graves,  pass 
through  all  the  hearts  and  all 
hearths  in  this  broad  continent 


violence,  within  any  State  or 
States,  against  the  authority  of 
the  United  States,  are  insurrec- 
tionary or  revolutionary,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances. 

I  therefore  consider  that,  in 
view  of  the  Constitution  and  the 
laws,  the  Union  is  unbroken; 
and  to  the  extent  of  my  ability 
I  shall  take  care,  as  the  Consti- 
tution expressly  enjoins  upon 
me,  that  the  laws  of  the  Union 
be  faithfully  executed  in  all  the 
States.  Doing  this  I  deem  to 
be  only  a  simple  duty  on  my 
part ;  and  I  shall  perform  it,  so 
far  as  practicable,  unless  my 
rightful  masters,  the  American 
people,  shall  withhold  the  requi- 
site means,  or  in  some  authorita- 
tive manner  direct  the  contrary. 
I  trust  this  will  not  be  regarded 
as  a  menace,  but  only  as  the 
declared  purpose  of  the  Union 
that  it  will  constitutionally 
defend  and  maintain  itself.  .  .  . 

I  am  loth  to  close.  We  are 
not  enemies,  but  friends.  We 
must  not  be  enemies.  Though 
passion  may  have  strained,  it 
must  not  break  our  bonds  of 
affection.  The  mystic  chords 
of  memory,  stretching  from 
every  battle-field  and  patriot 
grave  to  every  living  heart  and 
hearthstone,  all  over  this  broad 
land,  will  yet  swell  the  chorus 
of    the     Union,     when     again 


How  to  Say  It. 


219 


of  ours,  will  yet  again  harmo- 
nize in  their  ancient  music  when 
breathed  upon  by  the  guardian 
angel  of  the  nation.^ 


touched,  as  surely  they  will  be, 
by  the  better  angels  of  our 
nature. 


LESSON  28. 
Imaginative  Expressions, 

There  are  two  principal  ways  in  which  the  mind  may  do 
its  thinking.  One  wayjsj)yjnean^qfj_^  linage^  We  think 
in  images,  when  we  call  up  in  mind  pictures  of  things  that 
we  have  seen,  or  revive  impressions  of  sounds,  touches, 
tastes,  or  smells.  When  we  read  the  words  "full  moon," 
if  we  see  in  mind  a  big  yellow  disk  rising  over  the  tree- 
tops,  or  when  we  read  the  word  "thunder-clap,"  if  we  hear 
in  mind  a  startling  crash,  followed  by  hollow  reverbera- 
tions, —  in  either  case  we  think  by  means  of  images. 

Another  way  of  thinking  is  by  means  of  what  are  called 
"  general  ideas."  When  we  think  in  this  way,  we  seem  to 
think  about  the  meaning  of  things  rather  than  about  the 
things  themselves.  It  is  true  we  always  have  some  sort 
of  image  in  the  mind,  but  we  are  less  interested  in  the 
image  itself  than  in  what  the  image  signifies  or  stands  for. 
Thus  when  we  read  the  sentence,  "  Several  of  the  planets 
have  moons,"  if  an  image  of  a  moon  rises  in  the  mind, 
what  we  are  interested  in  is  not  the  size  or  shape  or  color  of 
the  image ;  these  particulars  do  not  now  concern  us  ;  we  are 


1  This  suggestion  for  a  closing  paragraph  was  written  by  Mr.  Seward. 
The  original  draft  by  Lincoln  ran  as  follows :  "  My  dissatisfied  fellow- 
countrymen:  You  can  forbear  the  assault  upon  it  [the  Government],  I 
cannot  shrink  from  the  defence  of  it.  With  you,  and  not  with  me,  is  the 
solemn  question  of  Shall  it  be  peace  or  a  sword."  To  this  Mr.  Seward 
objected  on  the  ground  that  "  something  besides  or  in  addition  to  argument 
is  needful — to  meet  and  remove  prejudice  and  passion  in  the  South  and 
despondency  and  fear  in  the  East.  Some  words  of  affection  —  some  of 
calm  and  cheerful  confidence." 


220 


Composition-Rhetoric, 


interested  rather  in  the  meaning  of  the  image,  or,  to  use  a 
common  expression,  in  "  the  idea  of  moon  in  general.'^ 

Certain  words  and  expressions  have  the  power  to  make 
us  think  in  images ;  certain  other  words  and  expressions 
have  the  power  to  make  us  think  in  general  ideas.  The 
difference  between  these  two  kinds  of  expressions  is  illus- 
trated in  the  following.  The  paragraph  in  the  left-hand 
column  aims  to  make  us  think  in  images.  The  version 
of  this  paragraph  in  the  right-hand  column  aims  to  make 
us  think  in  general  ideas. 


1.  The  very  gnarliest  and 
hardest  of  hearts  has  some 
musical  strings  in  it.  2.  But 
they  are  tuned  differently  in 
every  one  of  us,  so  that  the 
self-same  strain,  which  wakens 
a  thrill  of  sympathetic  melody 
in  one,  may  leave  another  quite 
silent  and  untouched.  3.  For 
whatever  I  love,  my  delight 
amounts  to  an  extravagance. 
4.  There  are  vei'ses  which  I 
cannot  read  without  tears  of 
exultation  which  to  others  are 
merely  indiiferent.  5.  Those 
simple  touches  scattered  here 
and  there,  by  all  great  writers, 
which  make  me  feel  that  T,  and 
every  most  despised  and  out- 
cast child  of  God  that  breathes, 
have  a  common  humanity  with 
those  glorious  spirits,  overpower 
me.  6.  Poetry  has  a  key  which 
unlocks  some  more  inward  cabi- 
net of  my  nature  than  is  acces- 


n. 

1.  Even  the  most  irresponsive 
person  is  in  some  degree  sus- 
ceptible to  the  influence  of  poet- 
ry. 2.  But  our  susceptibilities 
are  of  different  kinds,  so  that  a 
poem  which  affects  one  person  a 
good  deal  may  affect  another  not 
at  all.  3.  For  whatever  I  love, 
my  delight  amounts  to  an  ex- 
travagance. 4.  There  are  verses 
which  I  cannot  read  without 
a  strong  feeling  of  exultation 
which  to  others  are  merely  in- 
different. 5.  Those  simple  pas- 
sages occurring  in  various  places 
in  the  poems  of  great  writers, 
which  make  me  feel  that  I  and 
every  other  person,  however 
humble,  have  a  common  human- 
ity with  those  superior  minds, 
make  me  have  very  strong  emo- 
tions. 6.  Poetry  causes  feelings 
which  are  not  caused  by  any- 
thing else.  7.  I  cannot  explain 
it    or    account  for    it,    or    say 


How  to  Say  It, 


221 


sible  to  any  other  power.  7.  I 
cannot  explain  it  or  account  for 
it,  or  say  what  faculty  it  appeals 
to.  8.  The  chord  which  vi- 
brates strongly  becomes  blurred 
and  invisible  in  proportion  to 
the  intensity  of  its  impulse. 
9.  Often  the  mere  rhyme,  the 
cadence  and  sound  of  the  words, 
awaken  this  strange  feeling  in 
me.  10.  Not  only  do  all  the 
happy  associations  of  my  early 
life,  that  before  lay  scattered, 
take  beautiful  shapes,  like  iron 
dust  at  the  approach  of  the  ma^- 
jiet,  but  something  dim  and 
vague  beyond  these,  moves  it- 
self in  me  with  the  uncertain 
sound  of  a  far-off  sea.  —  Low- 
ell :  Conversations  on  some  of 
the  Old  Poets. 


what  faculty  it  affects.  8.  The 
stronger  the  feeling,  the  harder 
it  is  to  say  what  it  is  or  whence 
it  comes.  9.  Often  the  mere 
rhyme,  the  cadence  and  sound 
of  the  words,  cause  this  strange 
feeling  in  me.  10.  Not  only  do 
all  the  happy  associations  of  my 
early  life,  that  were  before  sep- 
arated in  my  mind,  now  come 
together  in  beautiful  and  sym- 
metrical order,  but  I  am  con- 
scious of  something  undefined 
and  difficult  of  apprehension  in 
addition  to  these. 


Note  how  differently  the  two  versions  affect  you  as  you 
read  them.  In  reading  I.,  the  word  ^'  gnarliest "  calls  up  an 
image  of  a  knotty  piece  of  oak ;  "  musical  strings "  an 
image  of  an  instrument  of  music,  a  harp  or  a  violin  ;  at  the 
word  "  tears/'  in  sentence  4,  we  picture  a  man  with  stream- 
ing eyes;  "the  chord  which  vibrates  strongly  becomes 
blurred "  revives  the  familiar  sight  of  the  vibrating  string 
and  its  accompanying  sound ;  "  like  iron  dust  at  the  ap- 
proach of  the  magnet "  makes  us  picture  iron  filings  arrang- 
ing themselves  in  concentric  curves.  None  of  these  images 
is  called  up  in  reading  II. 

Expressions  which  make  us  think  in  images  may  be 
called,  for  convenience,  imaginative  expressions.  They  go 
by  a  variety  of  names,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the 
following :  — 


222  Composition-Rhetoric, 

1.  The  word  partiGular  or  specific  is  sometimes  applied  to 
these  expressions  to  direct  atTentit>tr  to  the  definiteness  of 
the  aroused  images.  Particular  terms  are  contrasted  with 
ge^erckLterms.  In  the  illustration  given  above  the  expres- 
sion "tears  of  exultation"  arouses  a  particular,  definite 
image.     "  A  strong  feeling  of  exultation '"  is  more  general. 

2.  Sometimes  the  term  concrete  is  applied  to  these  ex- 
pressions. It  means  that  the  images  they  arouse  are  images 
of  things  that  appeal  to  the  senses,  that  is,  of  things  that 
can  be  seen,  heard,  touched,  smelt,  or  tasted.  Concrete  ex- 
pressions are  contrasted  with  abstract  expressions.  "Tears 
of  exultation"  is  more  concrete  than  "a  strong  feeling 
of  exultation,"  because  tears  appeal  to  the  sense  of  sight 
while  feelings  do  not. 

3.  To  a  large  number  of  imaginative  expressions  may  be 
applied  the  term  figurative.  A  figurative  expression  is  one 
which  makes  us  think  of  something  under  the  image  of 
something  else.  In  a  figure  an  object  is  represented  either 
as  being  something  else  or  as  being  (or  acting)  like  some- 
thing else.  A  heart  is  represented  as  being  a  musical  in- 
strument; scattered  recollections  of  childhood  are  repre- 
sented as  acting  like  iron  filings.  Figurative  expressions 
are  contrasted  with  literal  expressions  or  plain  statements. 
Although  many  different  kinds  of  figures  are  mentioned 
by  rhetoricians,  we  shall  speak  of  but  two,  —  similes  and 
metaphorical  expressions.  The  difference  between  them  is 
that  in  the  simile  the  image  of  "  something  else "  is  kept 
apart  from  the  thing  or  idea  it  illustrates,  the  separation 
being  marked  usually  by  such  words  as  like,  as,  just  so; 
whereas  in  metaphorical  expressions  the  thing  and  the 
image  blend  together,  and  we  speak  of  the  thing  as  if  it 
actually  were  the  image.  "Poetry  has  a  key  which  un- 
locks some  more  inward  cabinet  of  my  nature  "  is  metaphor, 
because  we  speak  of  the  mind  as  if  it  were  actually  a  set 
of  cabinets  one  within  another,  and  of  poetry  as  if  it  were 


How  to  Say  It.  223 

actually  a  person  who  could  unlock  one  of  these  cabinets. 
But  such  a  sentence  as  "the  happy  associations  of  my  early 
life,  that  before  lay  scattered,  take  beautiful  shapes,  like 
iron  dust  at  the  approach  of  the  magnet,"  is  a  simile,  the 
idea  of  the  union  of  happy  associations  being  separated 
from  the  image  which  illustrates  it. 

Thinking  in  images  is  easier,  more  vivid,  and,  for  most 
persons,  more  interesting  than  thinking  in  general  ideas. 
Consequently,  if  in  our  writing  we  can  use  particular  terms 
instead  of  general,  concrete  expressions  instead  of  abstract, 
figurative  language  instead  of  plain  or  literal,  our  composi- 
tions are  likely  to  be  more  forcible,  vivacious,  and  attrac- 
tive. General  ideas,  on  the  other  hand,  are  necessary  to 
exactness.  So  that  if  we  think  exactly,  and  desire  to  say 
just  what  we  think,  we  must  be  abl5  to  use  expressions  that 
are  general,  abstract,  and  literal. 

With  regard  to  figurative  language,  the  following  observa- 
tions may  be  made :  — 

1.  Figures  —  striking  figures  at  any  rate  —  are  not  essen- 
tial to  a  good  prose  style.  Many  eminent  writers  dispense 
with  them  almost  entirely. 

2.  The  only  recipe  for  producing  good  figures  is  for  the 
pupil  to  become  deeply  interested  in  his  subject.  If  his 
mind  is  given  to  producing  figurative  images,  the  images 
will  come  unsolicited.  If  such  images  do  not  come  of  them- 
selves, it  is  better  to  get  along  without  them. 

3.  In  revising  his  written  work,  the  pupil  should  take 
care  that  figurative  expressions  meet  the  following  require- 
ments :  — 

a.  Figures  should  be  fresh  and  unhackneyed.  If  an  image 
occurs  that  has  been  used  a  great  many  times  before,  con- 
sider whether  the  reader  is  likely  to  get  any  pleasure  from 
it  when  he  comes  upon  it  again. 

h.  Figures  should  grow  naturally  out  of  the  subject  and 
be  appropriate  to  the  purpose  for  which  one  is  writing. 


224  Composition-Rhetoric, 

The  image  of  ^^  something  else  "  should  differ  from  and  yet 
curiously  and  significantly  resemble  the  thing  or  idea  that 
it  pictures.  The  following  passage  from  Macaulay  contains 
an  example  of  a  metaphor  that  is  good  and  a  metaphor  that 
is  bad  in  this  respect :  — 

The  works  of  Milton  cannot  be  comprehended  or  enjoyed  unless 
the  mind  of  the  reader  co-operate  with  that  of  the  writer.  He 
does  not  paint  a  finished  picture  or  play  for  a  mere  passive  listener. 
He  sketches,  and  leaves  others  to  fill  up  the  outline.  He  strikes 
the  key-note  and  expects  his  hearer  to  make  out  the  melody. 

The  image  of  a  painter  sketching  a  picture  and  leaving  us 
to  fill  up  the  outline  is  natural  and  appropriate.  We  see  at 
once  its  resemblance  to  the  mode  of  writing  employed  by 
Milton.  But  the  ima^  of  a  musician  striking  a  key-note 
and  expecting  his  hearers  to  make  out  the  melody  is  highly 
absurd.  No  musician  would  do  such  a  thing,  and  even 
if  he  should,  his  act  would  have  no  resemblance  to  Milton's 
poetry. 

c.  Images  of  things  that  are  familiar  are  easier  to  appre- 
hend than  images  of  things  that  are  unfamiliar.  "His 
voice  had  an  odd  note  in  it  like  the  cry  of  a  whaup  "  does 
not  mean  very  much  to  persons  brought  up  in  America, 
because  few  of  them  have  heard  a  whaup  cry.  The  follow- 
ing, however,  appeals  to  every  one :  "  Innumerable  tawny 
and  yellow  leaves  skimmed  along  the  pavement,  and  stole 
through  people's  doorways  into  their  passages,  with  a  hesi- 
tating scratch  on  the  floor,  like  the  skirts  of  timid  visitors." 

d.  In  the  heat  of  composition  two  or  more  images  are 
sometimes  jumbled  together  in  a  metaphor  in  such  a  way 
as  to  be  ridiculous.  "  The  strong  arm  of  the  law  is  march- 
ing through  the  land  breathing  fire  and  sword"  is  an 
example  of  such  a  jumble.  A  similar  effect  is  produced 
when  the  reader  passes  too  suddenly  from  metaphor  to 
literal  statement,  as  in  "  Appearing  above  the  horizon  like 


How  to  Say  It,  225 

a  new  and  resplendent  luminary,  lie  entered  Parliament  the 
following  year."  If  the  pupil  is  given  to  these  faults,  he 
should,  in  his  revision,  scan  each  metaphor  closely,  asking 
himself  such  questions  as  these:  "Is  there  any  confusion 
of  images  here  ? ''  "  Will  this  metaphor  make  my  readers 
laugh  when  I  do  not  want  them  to  laugh  ?  " 

e.  Beware  of  drawing  figures  out  to  tedious  length,  as  in 
the  following:  "With  the  rope  of  his  genius  he  let  the 
bucket  of  imagination  down  into  the  well  of  human  nature 
and  drew  it  up  brimming  over  with  wit  and  humor." 

Use  particular  and  concrete  expressions  to  give  vigor  and  interest. 
Never  strive  after  figures  or  use  them  merely  for  purposes  of  orna- 
ment. In  revision,  be  on  the  watch  for  figures  that  are  hackneyed, 
unnatural,  ridiculous,  or  long  drawn  out.* 


EXERCISE  86. 

Point  out  particular,  concrete,  and  figurative  expressions 
in  the  following  selection,  and  account  for  the  use  of 
them :  — 

f.Q  ^       Society  is  a  strong  solution  of  books. -^  It  draws  the  virtue  out 
A     of  what  is  best  worth  reading,  as  hot  water  draws  the  strength  of 
tea-leaves.     If  I  were  a  prince,  I  would  hire  or  buy  a  prjxate 
literaryteapot,  in  which  I  would  steep  all  the  leaves  of  new  books  ]^<J 
'     ^J-that  promised  well.     The  infusion  would  do  for  me  without  thei) 
ijfejr^egetable   fibre.     You  understand   me;    I  would   have  a  person 
f whose  sole  business  should  be  to  read  day  and  night,  and  talk  to 
^^me  whenever  I  wanted  him  to.     I  know  the  man  I  would  have  :  a 
^quick-witted,  outspoken,  incisive  fellow ;  knows  history,  or  at  any 
rate  has  a  shelf  full  of  books  about  it,  which  he  can  use  handily, 
and  the  same  of  all  useful  arts  and  sciences ;  knows  all  the  com- 
mon plots  of  plays  and  novels,  and  the  stock  company  of  characters 
that  are  continually  coming  on  in  new  costumes ;  can  give  you  a 
criticism  of  an  octavo  in  an   epithet  and  a  wink,  and  you  can 
depend  on  it ;  cares  for  nobody  except  for  the  virtue  there  is  in 


^ 


M 


226  Composition- Rhetoric, 

what  he  says ;    delights  in  taking  off  big-wigs  and  professional  ( 
gowns,  and  in  the  disembalming  and  unbandaging  of  all  literary .lA/ 
mummies.     Yet  he  is   as  tender  and  reverential  to  all  that  bears  1| 
the  mark  of  genius  —  that  is,  of  a  new  influx  of  truth  ^^  bfta.iity -OhAC 
as  a  nun  over  her  missal.     In  short,  he  is  one  of  those  men  who 
know  everything  except  how  to  make  a  living.    Him  would  I  keep  h 
on  the  square  next  my  own  royal  compartment  or^  life's  chp-ss-i^^^ 
board.    ^foTiTm  I  would  push  up  another  pawn  in  the  shape  of  a[j    ( 
comely  and  wise  young  woman,  whom  he  would,  of  course,  take  — 
to  wife.     For  all  contingencies  I  would  liberally  provide.     In  a 
word,  I  would,  in  the  plebeian,  but  expressive  phrase,  "  put  him 
through  "  all  the  material  part  of  life ;  see  him  sheltered,  warmed, 
fed,  button-mended,  and  all  that,  just  to  be  able  to  lay  on  his  talk^i 
when  I  liked  —  with  the  privilege  ofshutting  it  off  at  will. — Y^t 
Holmes:    Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table.  /) 


EXERCISE  87. 

Re-write  the  following  selections,  changing  all  the  partic- 
ular and  concrete  terms  to  general  and  abstract  terms,  and 
all  the  figurative  expressions  to  plain  statements.     Notic^  /v^ 
the  difference  in  effect.  ^_  ^  ^^^  ^.j^j^^^  )^^rw>JUk(^  U^  <5 

Mere  acquired  knowledge  belongs  to  us  only  like  a  wooden  leg 
or  a  wax  nose.     Knowledge  obtained  by  means  of  thinking  ve^ 
»aj»bles   oiii'   natuial    lliiibs,   au^  is   the   only  kind   that  really 
belongs  to  us.     Hepce  the  difference  between  the  thinker  and  the   a 
pedant.     The,  intSleWial  possession  of  ttie  independent  thinker  is  jLk 
'!ike  a  beautiful  picture  which  stands  before  us,  a  living  thing  with  [), 
fitting  light  and  shadow,  sustained  tones,  perfect  harmony  of  co\6r.  „ 
Tpat  of  tiie  merely  learned  man  ^y  be  compared  to  a  palette 
^dl9>Af^U^ith    bright   colors,  perhaps"  even   arrahged  with^  sbWe^ 
system,  but  wanting  in  harmony,  coherence,  and  meaning. 


It  was  the  new-fashioned  agricultural  implement  known  as  the 
horse-drill,  till  then  unknown,  in  its  modern  shape,  in  this  part 
of  the  country,  where  the  venerable  seed-lip  was  still  used  for  sow- 
ing as  in  the  days  of  the  Heptarchy.  Its  arrival  created  about 
as  much  sensation  in  the  corn-market  as  a  flying  machine  would 


How  .to  San  It.     ^  j      '   227 

In'Oharing  Cross.     The  farmers  crow^led  rouiid  i^,  women     \ 
lar^,  children  crept  under  it  and  infc,  \\.     The  'machine^  J^  W 
ftiRedHHMWignt'hiie^fcf'^gi'eBn;  ^  and  it  re- 

sembled as  a  whole  a  compound  of  hornet,  grasshopper,  and 
shrimp,  magnified  enormously.  Or  it  might  have  been  likened 
to  an  upright  musical  instrument  with  the  front  gone.  That 
was  how  it  struck  Lucetta.  "  Why,  it  is  a  sort  of  an  agricult- 
ural piano/ysll^gffilk  —  Hardy  :   The  Mayor  of  Casterbridge. 


EXERCISE  88. 


l.;j 


*  Re-wnte  the  following,  changing  the  hackneyed  figures  to 
plain  statements.  If  any  good  rftw  images  occur  to  you 
while  writing,  substitute  them  for  the  old.     j      a         ^  .  i 

In  the  fields  of  literary  culture  and  classic  resAirch  he  was 

indeed  superb,  for  his  speeches,  while  containing  golden  nuggets 

^k  of    ripest  wisdom,   sparkled  with   gems   of    richest   humor   and 

fvj^-glistened   with   the   auroral    lights    of   the   finest   poetic    fancy. 

Qir     Thousands   have   been  charmed   and  enchanted  with   the  richly 

^X    blooming  flowers  of  his  poetic   gardens,  and  lulled  and  soothed  . 

\(  by  the  rhythmic  flow  of  his  gracefully  winding  current  of  mellif- 
r     ^i**®^^^  rhetoric.     All  of  his  speeches  were  forceful  in  their  pres- 


5>E 


entation  of  truth  and  facts,  noble  in  their  ethical  teachings  of 
duty  to  country,  luscious  with  the  mellowest  fruitage  of  lofty 
patriotism,  opulent  with  the  gems  of  successfully  garnered  wisdom, 
kingly  in  the  imperial  sweep  of  their  royal  eloquence,  and  regal  in 
the  magnificent  drapery  of  the  most  ornate  diction.  They  will 
prove  monuments  to  his  fame  more  lasting  than  marble,  for  on 
the  adamantine  and  invulnerable  surface  of  their  imperishable 
worth,  unequalled  merit,  superb  splendor,  and  magnificent  beauty, 
the  corroding  and  devastating  moth  of  decay  will  never  fix  a  fang. 
—  Congressional  Record,  Feb.  24,  1895,  p.  2665. 

Scarcely  a  year  ago,  among  the,  rugged  hills  of  Northern  Italy, 
the  last  faint  spark  of  a  disappointed  life  went  out.  A  voice 
once  heard  across  the  Atlantic,.tlirilling  with  rapture  two  conti- 
nents, was  hushed  in  death.  A  soul  wjiose  vivid  Mow  had  warmed 
and  cheered  the  hearts  of  those  who  travelled  duty's  uneven  path- 


228  Composition-Rhetoric. 

way,  had  returned  to  the  God  who  gave  it.  An  old  man,  weighed 
down  by  sorrow  and  years,  whose  only  hope  had  been  the  freedom 
of  his  beloved  country,  had  seen  that  hope  turned  into  the  dark- 
ness of  despair.  The  last  lingering  champion  of  a  lost  cause,  with 
his  faith  in  humanity  shattered,  alone,  in  the  solitude  of  Nature's 
ruins,  had  gone  down  to  death  a  cheerless,  hopeless  exile.     This 

man  was  T,^nnis  Kns.snth. 


EXERCISE  89. 

In  a  series  of  short  paragraphs  de^ibe  the  pictures 
which  rise  in  your  mind^  as  you  read  the  following :  — 

And  then  at  once  and  most  gladly,  and,  let  us  hope,  for  many  a 
century,  you  laid  the  sword  aside.  "  The  sword,  after  all,"  as 
Victor  Hugo  says,  "  is  but  a  hideous  flash  in  the  darkness,"  while 
^'  Right  is  an  eternal  ray."  .  .  .  The  war  of  the  Secession  estab- 
lished your  national  position.  Just  as,  during  the  fighting,  many 
a  boy,  learning  to  look  death  in  the  face,  sprang  into  manhood  at 
the  touch  of  noble  responsibility,  so  the  war  strengthened  and 
sobered  you,  and  gave  to  your  thoughts,  your  politics,  your  bear- 
ing as  a  people,  a  grander  and  manlier  tone.  The  nation  waved 
her  hand,  and  her  army  of  more  than  a  million  sank  back  instantly 
into  peaceful  civil  life,  as  the  soldiers  of  Roderic  Dhu  sank  back 
into  the  heather.  — Farrar  :  Thoughts  on  America. 

Stay  at  home  in  your  mind.  Don't  recite  other  people's 
opinions.  See  how  it  lies  then  in  you  ;  and  if  there  is  no  counsel 
offer  none.  What  we  want  is,  not  your  activity  or  interference 
with  your  mind,  but  your  content  to  be  a  vehicle  of  the  simple 
truth.  The  way  to  have  large  occasional  views,  as  in  a  political  or 
social  crisis,  is  to  have  large  habitual  views.  When  men  consult 
you,  it  is  not  that  they  wish  you  to  stand  tiptoe,  and  pump  your 
brains,  but  to  apply  your  habitual  view,  your  wisdom,  to  the  pres- 
ent question,  forbearing  all  pedantries,  and  the  very  name  of 
argument;  for  in  good  conversation  parties  don't  speak  to  the 
words,  but  to  the  meaning  of  each  other.  —  Emerson  :  Social 
Aims. 


How  to  Say  It.  229 


In  a  short  paragraph,  de^cribe^as  accurately  as  you  can 
what  you  see  in  mind  upon  reading  one  of  the  following 
sentences :  — 

Refreshed  and  replenished  by  the  silver  stream  of  inspiration, 
the  pulpit  has  steadily  marched  through  the  succeeding  periods  of 
the  world's  history,  tearing  down  the  bulwarks  of  bigotry,  error, 
and  superstition. 

Know  God  and  Nature  only  are  the  same ; 
In  man  the  judgment  shoots  at  flying  game, 
A  bird  of  passage,  gone  as  soon  as  found, 
Now  in  the  moon,  perhaps,  now  under  ground. 

—  Pope  :  Moral  Essays. 

Carlo  received  severe  injuries  at  the  hands  of  a  bull-dog.^ 

The  competition  of  the  railways  is  cutting  the  ground  from 
under  the  steamers'  feet.^ 

Our  American  fathers,  spurned  from  the  bosom  of  their  mother- 
country  and  rocked  by  the  convulsions  of  a  revolution,  tried  the 
great  experiment  of  erecting  an  independent  government. 

n 

EXERCISE^91.     y/Ly">L^    ^ 

Write  an  essay  of  about  250  words  upon  one  of  the  following 
subjects.     Justify  your  use  of  imaginative  expressions. 

1.  The  full  moon  as  it  appears  through  a  telescope. 

2.  What  our  ancestors  would  think  of  a  railroad  if  they 
should  come  to  life. 

3.  Dangers  of  Alpine  climbing. 

4.  A  cloud-burst. 

1  Quoted  by  A.  S.  Hill,  Foundations  of  Rhetoric,  p.  194. 

2  Longmans'  School  Composition,  p.  270. 


230  Composition-Rhetoric. 

5.  How  bad  money  drives  out  good. 

6.  The  distances  of  the  fixed  stars. 

7.  A  brilliant  sunset. 

8.  The  battle  of  Waterloo. 


EXERCISE  92. 

Find  three  paragraphs  among  those  quoted  in   this  book,  in 
which  no  figures  are  employed. 


CHAPTER   V. 

IN   ^WHAT   ORDER   TO   SAY   IT. 

LESSON  29. 

Antithesis  and  Climax. 

In  our  study  of  balanced  sentences  the  fact  was  discov- 
ered that  contrasting  ideas  in  the  same  sentence  show 
similarity  in  form  and  length  of  statement,  corresponding 
words,  phrases,  or  clauses  answering  to  one  another  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  the  contrasting  ideas  conspicuous. 
This  order  is  called  antithesis.  It  should  be  used  only  when 
there  is  a  real  contrast  between  the  ideas  to  be  presented. 

Antithesis  also  appears  in  a  wider  application  when  a 
whole  sentence  is  in  contrast  with  another.  Here,  too, 
similarity  of  form  and  structure  is  usually  preserved. 

There  is  often  antithesis  of  thought,  however,  without 
marked  antithesis  of  form.  Two  paragraphs  may  show 
contrasting  thoughts  without  showing  any  conspicuous  simi- 
larity in  construction.  The  plan  of  a  whole  discourse  may 
be  antithetical  in  thought  and  form,  or  in  thought  alone. 

Let  us  examine  the  following  speech  by  Edmund  Burke. 
It  was  delivered  to  his  constituents  after  the  election  of 
1774,  and  discusses  a  very  important  question,  —  in  cases 
when  a  representative's  judgment  differs  from  the  known 
or  supposed  opinion  of  his  constituents,  should  he  vote  as 
his  constituents  would  have  him  vote,  or  should  he  vote  as 
his  own  best  judgment  of  what  is  right  tells  him  to  vote? 

231 


232  Composition-Rhetoric, 

We  see  at  once  that  here  is  an  antithesis  in  thought,  and 
it  comes  out  in  the  first  two  paragraphs,  which  state  the 
question  and  begin  the  argument.  The  first  paragraph  tells 
how  far  a  representative  should  go,  —  he  should  weigh  the 
opinions  of  his  constituents,  should  respect  their  wishes, 
and  should  prefer  their  interests  to  his  own  personal  inter- 
est. The  second  paragraph  tells  what  the  representative 
should  not  yield,  —  he  should  not  yield  his  convictions,  he 
should  vote  as  his  judgment  and  conscience  dictate,  even 
when  he  knows  that  his  vote  is  contrary  to  public  opinion 
among  his  constituents. 

The  antithesis  of  thought  is  continued  in  the  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  paragraphs.  Antithesis  is  the  basis  of  the 
structure  also  in  these  paragraphs,  but  only  the  basis ;  for 
the  details  are  not  strictly  held  to  similarity  of  form, 
length,  and  position.  Paragraph  three  divides  at  sentence 
11 ;  paragraph  four,  at  sentence  13.  In  paragraph  five, 
sentences  14,  15,  18,  and  20  show  marked  likeness  of  form 
in  the  contrasting  parts. 

1.  Certainly,  Gentlemen,  it  ought  to  be  the  happiness  and  glory 
of  a  representative  to  live  in  the  strictest  union,  the  closest  corre- 
spondence, and  the  most  unreserved  communication  with  his  con- 
stituents. 2.  Their  wishes  ought  to  have  great  weight  with  him; 
their  opinions  high  respect ;  their  business  unremitted  attention ; 
3.  It  is  his  duty  to  sacrifice  his  repose,  his  pleasure,  his  satisfac- 
tions to  theirs,  —  and,  above  all,  ever,  and  in  all  cases,  to  prefer 
their  interest  to  his  own. 

4.  But  his  unbiassed  opinion,  his  mature  judgment,  his  enlight- 
ened conscience,  he  ought  not  to  sacrifice  to  you,  to  any  man,  or  to 
any  set  of  men  living.  5.  These  he  does  not  derive  from  your 
pleasure,  —  no,  nor  from  the  law  and  the  Constitution.  6.  They 
are  a  trust  from  Providence,  for  the  abuse  of  which  he  is  deeply 
answerable.  7.  Your  representative  owes  you,  not  his  industry 
only,  but  his  judgment;  and  he  betrays  instead  of  serving  you,  if 
he  sacrifices  it  to  your  opinion. 

8.  My  worthy  colleague  says,  his  will  ought  to  be  subservient 


In  What   Order  to  Say  It.  233 

to  yours.  9.  If  that  be  all,  the  thing  is  innocent.  10.  If  govern- 
ment were  a  matter  of  will  upon  any  side,  yours,  without  question, 
ought  to  be  superior.  11.  But  government  and  legislation  are 
matters  of  reason  and  judgment,  and  not  of  inclination ;  and 
what  sort  of  reason  is  that  in  which  the  determination  precedes 
the  discussion,  in  which  one  set  of  men  deliberate  and  another 
decide,  and  where  those  who  form  the  conclusion  are  perhaps  three 
hundred  miles  distant  from  those  who  hear  the  arguments  ? 

12.  To  deliver  an  opinion  is  the  right  of  all  men ;  that  of  con- 
stituents is  a  weighty  and  respectable  opinion,  which  a  representa- 
tive ought  always  to  rejoice  to  hear,  and  which  he  ought  always 
most  seriously  to  consider.  13.  But  autJioritadve  instructions, 
mandates  issued,  which  the  member  is  bound  blindly  and  implicitly 
to  obey,  to  vote,  and  to  argue  for,  though  contrary  to  the  clearest 
conviction  of  his  judgment  and  conscience,  —  these  are  things 
utterly  unknown  to  the  laws  of  this  land,  and  which  arise  from 
a  fundamental  mistake  of  the  whole  order  and  tenor  of  our 
Constitution. 

14.  Parliament  is  not  a  congress  of  ambassadors  from  different 
and  hostile  interests,  which  interests  each  must  maintain,  as  an 
agent  and  advocate,  against  other  agents  and  advocates ;  but  Par- 
liament is  a  deliberative  assembly  of  o?ie  nation,  with  one  interest, 
that  of  the  whole,  —  where  not  local  purposes,  not  local  prejudices, 
ought  to  guide,  but  the  general  good,  resulting  from  the  general 
reason  of  the  whole.  15.  You  choose  a  member,  indeed;  but  when 
you  have  chosen  him,  he  is  not  a  member  of  Bristol,  but  he  is  a 
member  of  Parliament.  16.  If  the  local  constituent  should  have 
an  interest  or  should  form  an  hasty  opinion  evidently  opposite  to 
the  real  good  of  the  rest  of  the  community,  the  member  from  that 
place  ought  to  be  as  far  as  any  other  from  any  endeavor  to  give 
it  effect.  17.  I  beg  pardon  for  saying  so  much  on  this  subject ;  I 
have  been  unwillingly  drawn  into  it ;  but  I  shall  ever  use  a  re- 
spectful frankness  of  communication  with  you.  18.  Your  faith- 
ful friend,  your  devoted  servant,  I  shall  be  to  the  end  of  my  life  : 
a  flatterer  you  do  not  wish  for.  19.  On  this  point  of  instructions, 
however,  I  think  it  scarcely  possible  we  ever  can  have  any  sort  of 
difference.  20.  Perhaps  I  may  give  you  too  much,  rather  than 
too  little  trouble. 

21.  From  the  first  hour  I  was  encouraged  to  court  your  favor, 


234  Composition-RTietoric, 

to  this  happy  day  of  obtaining  it,  I  have  never  promised  you  any- 
thing but  humble  and  persevering  endeavors  to  do  my  duty. 
22.  The  weight  of  that  duty,  I  confess,  makes  me  tremble;  and 
whoever  well  considers  what  it  is,  of  all  things  in  the  world,  will 
fly  from  what  has  the  least  likeness  to  a  positive  and  precipitate 
engagement.  23.  To  be  a  good  member  of  Parliament  is,  let  me 
tell  you,  no  easy  task,  —  especially  at  this  time,  when  there  is  so 
strong  a  disposition  to  run  into  the  perilous  extremes  of  servile 
compliance  or  wild  popularity.  24.  To  unite  circumspection  with 
vigor  is  absolutely  necessary,  but  it  is  extremely  difficult.  25.  We 
are  now  members  for  a  rich  commercial  city ;  this  city,  however, 
is  but  a  part  of  a  rich  commercial  nation,  the  interests  of  which 
are  various,  multiform,  and  intricate.  26.  We  are  members  for 
that  great  nation,  which,  however,  is  itself  but  part  of  a  great 
empire,  extended  by  our  virtue  and  our  fortune  to  the  farthest 
limits  of  the  East  and  of  the  West.  27.  All  these  wide-spread 
interests  must  be  considered,  — must  be  compared,  —  must  be  rec- 
onciled, if  possible.  28.  We  are  members  for  a/ree  country;  and 
surely  we  all  know  that  the  machine  of  a  free  constitution  is  no 
simple  thing,  but  as  intricate  and  as  delicate  as  it  is  valuable. 
29.  AVe  are  members  of  a  great  and  ancient  monarchy ;  and  we 
must  preserve  religiously  the  true,  legal  rights  of  the  sovereign, 
which  form  the  keystone  that  binds  together  the  noble  and  well- 
constructed  arch  of  our  empire  and  our  constitution.  30.  A  con- 
stitution made  up  of  balanced  powers  must  ever  be  a  critical 
thing.  31.  As  such  I  mean  to  touch  that  part  of  it  which  comes 
within  my  reach.  32.  I  know  my  inability,  and  I  wish  for  sup- 
port from  every  quarter.  33.  In  particular  I  shall  aim  at  the 
friendship,  and  shall  cultivate  the  best  correspondence,  of  the 
worthy  colleague  you  have  given  me. 

Another  order  (sometimes  combined  with  antithesis)  is 
the  climax,  by  which  a  series  of  words,  phrases,  or  clauses 
is  so  arranged  that  each,  in  turn  surpasses  the  preceding 
one  in  intensity  of  expression  or  importance  of  meaning. 
In  the  speech  just  quoted  sentence  4  puts  the  words  "un- 
biassed opinions,"  "mature  judgment,"  "enlightened  con- 
science," in  a  climax,  the  second  expression  surpassing  the 


In  What   Order  to  Say  It,  235 

first,  and  the  tliird  the  second  in  intensity  and  importance. 
The  phrases  "  to  you,"  "  to  any  man/'  "  to  any  set  of  men/' 
in  sentence  4,  and  the  three  clauses  after  the  semicolon  in 
sentence  11,  illustrate  the  climax  of  phrases  and  the  climax 
of  clauses  respectively. 

Climax  of  whole  sentences  is  well  illustrated  by  sentences 
2h  to  29,  in  which  the  growth  in  importance  and  intensity 
is  marked  by  the  words  "  a  rich  commercial  city,''  "  a  rich 
commercial  nation,"  "  a  great  empire,"  "  a  free  country,"  "  a 
great  and  ancient  monarchy."  The  repetition  of  the  words 
"  we  are  members,"  at  the  beginning  of  these  sentences,  fore- 
tells in  each  case  that  something  more  important  is  coming. 

The  order  of  climax  also  appears  in  a  wider  application 
when  the  paragraphs  of  an  essay,  or  argument,  or  story 
grow  in  importance  and  interest  until  they  culminate  in 
the  strongest  and  most  essential  thought  of  all.  In  the 
speech  quoted  in  this  lesson,  there  is  a  distinct  increase  in 
power  and  intensity  from  the  first  paragraph  to  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  paragraph,  the  first  culmination  being  reached 
in  the  words  at  the  beginning  of  sentence  6,  "they  are  a 
trust  from  Providence,"  the  second  culmination  in  sentence 
11,  the  third  in  sentence  13,  the  fourth  in  sentence  16. 
From  sentence  16  to  sentence  25  we  are  given  personal 
explanations  which  were  very  important  at  the  time  and 
in  the  circumstances  under  which  they  were  made.  Their 
function  in  the  climax  is  not  felt  by  the  reader  of  to-day. 
However,  it  can  be  seen  that  they  prepare  for  the  final 
climax  beginning  with  sentence  2h, 

The  following  brief  story  illustrates  the  principle  of 
climax  in  a  narrative.  The  deepest  impression  is  made  at 
the  last,  and  nothing  is  added  at  the  close  to  take  away 
from  the  impression  produced  by  the  calm  words  of  the 
dying  general.  The  interest  of  the  reader  grows  from  the 
first  impression  produced  by  what  we  read  at  the  close  of 
the  first  sentence  (his  fortitude  in  pain)  to  the  second  im- 


236  Composition-Rhetoric, 

pression  (his  self-forgetfulness  and  continued  interest  in 
the  conflict),  and  culminates  in  the  incident  of  the  sword, 
showing  his  soldierly  pride  even  at  the  moment  of  death. 

General  Sir  John  Moore,  while  earnestly  watching  the  result  of 
the  fight  about  the  village  of  Elvira,  was  struck  on  the  left  breast 
by  a  cannon-shot ;  the  shock  threw  him  from  his  horse  with  vio- 
lence; yet  he  rose  again  in  a  sitting  posture,  his  countenance 
unchanged,  and  his  steadfast  eye  still  fixed  upon  the  regiments 
engaged  in  his  front,  no  sigh  betraying  a  sensation  of  pain.  In 
a  few  moments,  when  he  saw  the  troops  were  gaining  ground,  his 
countenance  brightened,  and  he  suffered  himself  to  be  taken  to 
the  rear.  Then  was  seen  the  nature  of  his  hurt.  As  the  soldiers 
placed  him  in  a  blanket,  his  sword  got  entangled,  and  the  hilt 
entered  the  wound;  Captain  Hardinge,  a  staff  officer,  attempted 
to  take  it  off,  but  the  dying  man  stopped  him,  saying :  "  It  is  as 
well  as  it  is.  I  had  rather  it  should  go  out  of  the  field  with  me ; " 
and  in  that  manner,  so  becoming  to  a  soldier,  Moore  was  borne 
from  the  fight.  —  INTapier. 

When  opposing  thoughts  are  to  he  presented  in  a  sentence,  para- 
graph, or  essay,  arrange  them  in  the  order  of  antithesis.  In  general, 
arrange  the  thoughts  of  a  paragraph  or  essay  in  the  order  of  climax. 

A  l^  E^RCISE  93. 

Make  a  list  of  the  thoughts  expressed  in  the  following. 
Do  they  come  in  the  order  of  increasing  importance  ? 

Democrac^_jias  not  only  taught  the  Americans  how  to  use 
liberty  without  abusing  it,  and  how  to  secure  equality :  it  has  also, 
tan^ht  them  frateri^itv.  That  word  has  gone  out  of  fashion  in 
the  Old  World,  and  no  wonder,  considering  what  was  done  in  its 
name  in  1793,  considering  also  that  it  still  figures  in  the  pro- 
g;Tamme  of  assassins.  N'evertheless,  there  is  in  the  United  States 
a  sort  of  kindliness,  a  sense  of  human  fellowship,  a  recognition  of 
the  duty  of  Tnntnal  )ip1p  nw^r^  V>y  pan  to  man,  stronger  than  any- 
where in  the  Old  World,  and  certainly  stronger  than  in  the  upper 
or  middle  classes  of  England,  France,  or  Germany.     The  natural 


In  What   Order  to  Say  It.  b  i(  J/      237 

impulse  of  every  citizen  in  America  is  to  respect  every  other  citi- 
zen, and  to  feel  that  citizenship  constilutes  _a  certain  ground,  of 
respect^  The  idea  of  each  man's  equal  rights  is  so  fully  realized 
that  the  rich  or  powerful  man  feels  it  no  indignity  to  take  his  turn 
among  the  crowd,  and  does  not  expect  any  deference  from  the 
poorest.  An  individual  employer  of  labor  (for  one  cannot  say ' 
the  same  of  corporations)  has,  I  think,  a. keener  sense  of  his  duty 
to  those  whom  he  employs  than  employers  have  in  continental 
Europe.  He  has  certainly  a  greater  sense  of  responsibility  for  the 
use  of  his  wealth.  The  number  of  gifts  for  benevolent  and  other 
public  purposes,  the  number  of  educational,  artistic,  literary,  and 
scientific  foundations,  is  larger  than  even  in  Britain,  the  wealthiest 
and  most  liberal  of  European  countries.  Wealth  is  generally  felt 
to  be  a  irust,  and  exclusiveness  condemned  not  merely  as  indica- 
tive of  selfishness,  but  a  sort  of  oifence  against  the  public.  !N'o 
ne,  for  instance,  thinks  of  shutting  up  his  pleasure-grounds ;  he 
seldom  even  builds  a  wall  round  them,  but  puts  up  low  railings  or 
palisade,  so  that  the  sight  of  his  trees  and  shrubs  is  enjoyed  by 
^vj)assers-by.  That  any  one  should  be  permitted  either  by  opinion 
or  by  law  to  seal  up  many  square  miles  of  beautiful  mountain 
country  against  tourists  or  artists  is  to  the  ordinary  American 
almost  incredible.  Such  things  are  to  him  the  marks  of  a  land 
still  groaning  under  feudal  tyranny.  ""^ 

It  may  seem  strange  to  those  who  know  how  difficult  European 
states  have  generally  found  it  to  conduct  negotiations  with  the 
government  of  the  United  States,  and  who  are  accustomed  to  read 
in  European  newspapers  the  defiant  utterances  which  American 
politicians  address  from  Congress  to  the  effete  monarchies  of  the 
Old  World,  to  be  told  that  this  spirit  of  fraternity  has  its  influ- 
ence on  international  relations  also.  Nevertheless  if  we  look  not 
at  the  irresponsible  orators,  who  play  to  the  lower  feelings  of  a 
section  of  the  people,  but  at  the  general  sentiment  of  the  whole 
people,  we  shall  recognize  that  democracy  makes  both  for  peace 
and  for  justice  as  between  nations.  Despite  the  admiration  for 
military  exploits  which  the  Americans  have  sometimes  shown,  no 
country  is  at  bottom  more  pervaded  by  a  hatred  of  war,  and  a 
sense  that  natJQliaLixQnQr  stands  rooted  in  national  fair  dealing. 
The  nation  is  often  misrepresented  by  its  statesmen,  but  although 
it  allows  them  to  say  irritating  things  and  advance  unreasonable 


238  Composition-Rhetoric. 

claims,  it  has  not  for  more  than  forty  years  permitted  them  to 
abuse  its  enormous  strength,  as  most  European  nations  possessed 
of  similar  strength  have  in  time  past  abused  theirs.  —  Bryce. 


EXERCISE  94. 


34u>r!^ 


Do  you  discover  anything  corresponding  to  the  order  of 
climax  in  the  following  selections  ?     Mark  the  stages. 

It  was  after  the  Revolution.  Manufactures,  tradSa^U  business 
was  flat  on  its  back.  A  silver  dollar  was  worth  seventy-five;  corn 
was  seventy-five  dollars  a  bushel,  board  five  hundred  dollars  a 
week.  Landed  property  was  worthless,  and  the  taxes  were  some- 
thing awful.  So  the  general  dissatisfaction  turned  on  the  courts 
and  was  going  to  prevent  collections.  Grandfather  Cobb  was  a 
judge  of  the  probate  court ;  and  when  he  heard  that  a  mob  was 
howling  in  front  of  the  court-house,  he  put  on  his  old  Continen- 
tal reginifiiitals,  the  old. buff  and  blue,  and  marched  out  alone. 
"  Away  with  your  whining !  "  says  he.  "  If  I  can't  hold  this  court 
in^peace,  I  will  hold  it  in  blood ;  if  I  can't  sit  as  a  judge,  I  will  die^ 
as  a  general ! "  Though  he  was  one  man  to  hundreds,  he  drew  a 
lin6  in  the  green,  and  told  the  mob  that  he  would  shoot  with  his 
own  hand  the  first  man  that  crossed.  He  was  too  many  for  the 
crowd,  standing  there  in  his  old  uniform  in  which  they  knew  he 
had  fought  for  them ;  and  they  only  muttered,  and  after  a  while 
dispersed.  They  came  again  the  next  term  of  court ;  but  he  had 
his  militia  and  his  cannon  all  ready  for  them,  then  ;  and  this  time 
when  they  got  their  answer  they  took  it,  went  off,  and  never  came 
back.  —  Octave  Thanet:  A  Son  of  the  Revolution. 

Thackeray  announced  to  me  by  letter  in  the  early  autumn  of 
1852  that  he  had  determined  to  visit  America,  and  would  sail  for 
Boston  by  the  Canada  on  the  30th  of  October.  All  the  necessary 
arrangements  for  his  lecturing  tour  had  been  made  without  troub- 
ling him  with  any  of  the  details.  He  arrived  on  a  frosty  Novem- 
ber evening,  and  went  directly  to  the  Tremont  House,  where 
rooms  had  been  engaged  for  him.  I  remember^is  delight  in 
getting  off  the  sea,  and  the  enthusiaaiiL^ith_jvlnch_^^^^  hailed  the 
announcement  that  dinnerwould  be  ready  shortly.     A  few  friends 


Jn/What   Order  to  Say  It,  239 

were  ready  to  sit  down  with  him,  and  hQ  seemed  greatly  to  enjoy 
the  novelty  of  an  American  repast.  In  London  he  had  been  very 
curious  in  his  inquiries  about  American  oysters,  as  marvellous 
stories,  which  he  did  not  believe,  had  been  told  him  of  their  great 
size.  We  apologized  —  although  we  had  taken  care  that  the 
largest  specimens  to  be  procured  should  startle  his  unwonted 
vision  when  he  came  to  the  table  —  for  what  we  called  the  extreme 
smallness  of  the  oysters,  promising  we  would  do  better  next  time. 
Six  bloated  Falstaffian  bivalves  lay  before  him  in  their  shells.  I 
noticed  that  he  gazed  at  them  anxiously  with  fork  upraised ;  then 
he  whispered  to  me,  with  a  look  of  anguish',  *'  How  shall  I  do  it  ?  " 
I  described  to  him  the  simple  process  by  which  the  free-born 
citizens  of  America  were  accustomed  to  accomplish  such  a  task. 
He  seemed  satisfied  that  the  thing  was  feasible,  selected  the 
smallest  one  in  the  half-dozen  (rejecting  a  large  one,  "because," 
he  said,  "  it  resembled  the  High  Priest's  servant's  ear  that  Peter 
cut  off"),  and  then  bowed  his  head  as  if  he  were  saying  grace. 
All  eyes  were  upon  him  to  watch  the  eifect  of  a  new  sensation  in 
the  person  of  a  great  British  author.  Opening  his  mouth  very 
wide,  he  struggled  for  a  moment,  and  then  all  was  over.  I  shall 
never  forget  the  comic  look  of  despair  he  cast  upon  the  other  five 
over-occupied  shells.  I  broke  the  perfect  stillness  by  asking  him 
how  he  felt.  "  Profoundly  grateful,"  he  gasped,  *'  and  as  if  I  had 
swallowed  a  little  baby."  —  Fields.  ._«----«— --——^^...^ 


EXERCISE  95.     v     '"     •.      -  • 

Re-arrange  the  propositions  of  the  following  outlines  so  that 
they  shall  come  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  the  most  im- 
portant last. 

Why  Good  Manners  should  be  Cultivated. 

^  1.    They  react  upon  the  character  of  the  person. 

5      2.    They  are  based  upon  the  idea   of   consideration   for 

others. 
c^     3.    They  avoid  needless  friction  in  social  gatherings. 
1 .     4.   They  are  beautiful  to  see,  in  themselves. 


240  Composition-Rhetoric, 

•^    5.    They  make  friends  for  us. 
%,     -6.    They  put  salutary  restraints  upon  us  at  times. 

Getting  Along  with  People. 

^  1.    One  should  not  be  ready  to  take  offence. 

%  *  2.    Conversation  may  be  managed  so  as  to  avoid  disputa- 
tion on  long-standing  differences. 

'5%    3.   There  is  not  often  need  of  a  direct  attack  upon  the 

beliefs  and  opinions  of  others. 
\\^     4.    To  refer  to  the  weakness  of  a  friend  is  ungenerous. 

(9,    5.    The  golden  rule  is  the  only  safe  guide. 

C     6.   To  betray  a  secret  at  the  expense  or  discomfort  of  a 
friend  is  reprehensible. 

EXERCISE  96. 
Write  an  essay  on  one  of  the  foregoing  outlines  after  revision. 

EXERCISE  97. 

Make  two  antithetical  statements  under  each  of  the  headings  of 
the  following  outline,  contrasting  Bryant's  Thanatopsis  and  Long- 
fellow's Psalm  of  Life. 

1.  Subject-matter.  2.  Kind  of  emotion  appealed  to.  3.  Depth 
of  emotion  shown.     4.  Faith  revealed. 

EXERCISE  98. 
Expand  the  points  of  the  preceding  outline  into  four  paragraphs. 

EXERCISE  99.       /l^*t/f  ^  . 

Read  Bacon's  essay  on  "  Beauty  "  and  his  essay  on  "  Deformity," 
(or  Milton's  U Allegro  and  II  Penseroso)  and  combine  the  contrast- 
ing thoughts  and  sentiments  of  the  two  in  a  single  antithetical 
essay. 

EXERCISE  100. 

Read  Lowell's  poem.  The  Heritage ,  and  combine  the  contrasting 
thoughts  and  sentiments  of  the  poem  in  a  brief  antithetical  essay. 


In  What   Order  to  Say  It.  241 

LESSOR    3Q.  /M^ 


ii  ^The  Logical  Order. 

In  Lessons  18  and  19  we  found  that  the  order  of  present- 
ing thoughts  in  a  paragraph  is  sometimes  the  statement  of 
a  cause  and  the  statement  of  the  effect  of  that  cause ;  or  is 
the  statement  of  a  proposition  and  the  statement  of  proofs 
of  that  proposition.  The  same  methods  may  be  effectively 
applied  in  planning  a  longer  essay  consisting  of  several 
paragraphs. 

Thus  in  the  following  outline  the  arrangement  is  by 
cause  and  effect. 

Foreign  Immigration  should  be  Restricted. 

I.  Fact  as  cause  :  (1)  Many  immigrants  are  paupers.  (A  para- 
graph of  proofs  involving  statistics  or 
statements  of  authorities  on  this  point.) 
XL  Fact  as  effect:  (2)  They  fill  our  almshouses  and  become  a 
public  charge.  (A  paragraph  of  proofs 
involving  statistics  or  statements  of  au- 
thorities.) 

III.  Fact  as  cause :  (3)  Some   of  them  are  criminals.     (A   para- 

graph of  proofs.) 

IV.  Fact  as  effect :  (4)  They  reinforce  the  criminal  classes.     (A 

paragraph  of  proofs.) 
Y.  Fact  as  cause :  (5)  Many  of  them  know  nothing  of  the  duties 
of  free   citizenship.     (A  paragraph  of 
proofs.) 
VI.  Fact  as  effect :  (6)  Such  immigrants  recruit  the  worst  element 
in  our  politics.    (A  paragraph  of  proofs.) 

The  order  indicated  above  may  be  followed,  or  all  of  the 
facts  as  causes  (I.,  III.,  Y.)  maybe  stated  and  proved  first  in 
successive  paragraphs,  and  then  all  of  the  facts  as  effects 
(IL,  lY.,  YI.)  may  be  stated  and  proved  in  successive  para- 
graphs. 


242 


Composition-Iihetoric. 


A  third  order  that  might  be  followed  with  the  same  mate- 
rial puts  the  effects  first  and  the  causes  afterward  j  thus  :  — 

I.  Fact  as  e:ffect :  (1)  Our  almshouses  are  crowded  with  people 

who  have  become  a  public  charge. 
11.  Fact  as  cause:  (2)  Pauper  immigrants  make  up  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  almshouse  population. 
III.  Fact  as  effect :  (3)  The  criminal  classes  continue  to  grow  in 

spite  of  efforts  at  repression. 
lY.  Fact  as  cause :  (4)  Immigrants  in  large  numbers  recruit  the 
criminal  classes. 
V.  Fact  as  effect :  (5)  The  worst  elements  in  politics  are  with  diffi- 
culty kept  from  securing  control  of  affairs. 
VI.  Fact  as  cause:  (6)  Immigration  feeds  the  ranks  of  ignorant 

voters. 
Conclusion  :  Foreign  immigration  should  be  restricted. 

A  fourth  order  would  put  the  effects  (I.,  III.,  Y.)  first  in 
successive  paragraphs,  and  would  follow  these  by  the  causes 
(II.,  lY.,  YI.)  in  successive  paragraphs. 

Compare  the  following  outlines  of  the  same  proposition : 
The  study  of  English  should  be  encouraged  in  the  schools. 


I. 

The  study  of  English 

1.  Promotes  power  of  expres- 
sion. 

2.  Gives  a  student  some 
knowledge  of  the  best  thoughts 
of  his  race. 

3.  Cultivates  the  taste  for  the 
better  things  of  life. 

4.  Adds  fresh  interest  in  the 
world  about  us. 

5.  Supplants  an  interest  in 
less  worthy  things. 

Hence  the  study  of  English 
should  be  encouraged  in  the 
schools. 


II. 

The  schools  should 

1.  Have  a  practical  end  in 
their  teaching. 

2.  Give  their  pupils  an  inter- 
est in  the  best  thinking. 

3.  Improve  the  taste  for  the 
better  things  of  life. 

4.  Interest  pupils  in  the  world 
about  them. 

5.  Offset  an  inclination  for 
less  worthy  things. 

These  purposes  of  school  work 
(as  effects)  may  be  fulfilled  by 
the  study  of  English  as  an  effi- 
cient cause.     Hence,  etc. 


In  What   Order  to  Say  It,  243 

In  the  first  of  these  outlines  we  begin  with  the  subject, 
"  The  study  of  English/'  and  show  its  effects  one  after  an- 
other. In  the  second  we  begin  with  the  predicate,  "The 
schools,"  and  present  its  effects  as  they  should  be;  these 
effects  we  find  may  be  produced  by  the  study  of  English. 
In  both  outlines  what  we  say  is  made  to  bear  upon  the 
whole  proposition,  "The  study  of  English  should  be  encour- 
aged in  the  schools,"  that  is,  we  have  the  whole  proposition 
in  mind,  no  matter  which  method  we  employ.  What  is  said 
in  one  outline  is  implied  in  the  other.  Taken  together,  they 
make  the  plan  complete ;  thus  ;  — 

The  Study  of  English  should  be  Encouraged  in  the 
Schools. 

1.  Because  the  study  has  a  practical  end;  namely,  power  of 
expression. 

2.  Because  the  schools  should  give  pupils  some  knowledge  of 
the  best  thinking. 

3.  Because  this  study  cultivates  the  taste  for  better  things, 
which  is  the  great  object  of  education. 

4.  Because  this  study  adds  interest  in  the  world,  which  is 
another  great  object  of  education. 

5.  Because  education  should  direct  inclination  from  less  worthy 
to  more  worthy  things,  and  this  can  be  done  by  the  study  of 
English. 

wfore  writing,  armiQeyOTirifthpuglits  on  some  definite  plan. 


EXERCISE  101. 

Make  an  outline  on  one  of  the  following  subjects,  by  one  of  the 
methods  illustrated  in  this  lesson. 

1.  The  value  of  cheerfulness. 

2.  The  advantages  of  public  libraries. 

3.  Why  conversation  should  be  practised. 


244  Composition-Rhetoric. 

4.  Why  the  work  of  the  Salvation  Army  is  deserving. 

5.  Reasons  for  making  an  early  choice  of  one's  life-work. 

6.  The  real  causes  of  the  war  for  the  Union. 

7.  The  need  of  good  roads. 

8.  Why  bicycles  should  not  be  ridden  on  the  sidewalk. 


EXERCISE  102. 


Analyze  the  following  selection  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
covering the  order  adopted  by  the  writer  in  presenting  his 
thoughts. 

Pennsylvania  is  the  second  state  in  the  Union.  But  those  who 
are  familiar  with  her  vast  resources  of  iron,  petroleum,  coal,  and 
lumber,  her  temperate  climate,  her  fertile  soil,  and  the  skill  of  her 
people  in  the  mechanic  arts  and  manufacturing,  often  wonder  why 
she  is  not  easily  the  first. 

The  difficulty  seems  to  be  a  lack  of  unity  and  homogeneousness 
among  her  people.  In  colonial  times  her  population  was  split  up 
into  distinct  divisions  of  nationalities  and  religions.  The  English 
Quakers  controlled  Philadelphia  and  its  neighborhood,  and  also 
dominated  the  Legislature.  The  Welsh  settled  on  a  tract  west  of 
the  city,  under  an  agreement  with  William  Penn  that  they  should 
have  it  for  a  little  colony  of  their  own.  For  a  time  they  succeeded 
in  governing  it  iu  their  own  way  and  at  the  first  very  few  of  them 
could  speak  English.  The  Scotch-Irish  Presbyterians  went  out  on 
the  frontier,  became  a  law  unto  themselves,  and  were  bitterly  op- 
posed to  the  Quakers,  who,  they  said,  refused  them  all  share  in  the 
political  government  of  the  province  and  failed  to  protect  them 
from  the  Indians.  The  Church  of  England  people  were  not  very 
numerous  in  colonial  times ;  but  when  the  sons  of  William  Penn 
joined  their  faith  they  were  given  the  executive  offices  of  the  gov- 
ernment, which  were  all  in  the  control  of  the  proprietors.  Thus 
the  political  administration  of  the  province  was  split  into  two  parts, 
the  executive  controlled  by  the  Church  of  England  people  and  the 
Legislature  controlled  by  the  Quakers. 

The  northern  half  of  the  province  was  claimed  by  Connecticut, 
and  her  people  by  force  of  arms  succeeded  in  settling  and  holding 


In  What   Order  to  Say  It.  246 

part  of  it.  They  lived  by  themselves,  and  their  descendants  still 
retain  much  of  their  local  sentiment  and  pride.  But  the  most  im- 
portant and  distinct  division  was  that  of  the  Germans,  who  num- 
bered at  least  a  third  of  the  population.  They  retained  their 
language  and  customs,  and  lived  by  themselves.  There  are  still 
many  of  them  who,  though  their  ancestors  have  been  in  the  state 
for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years,  cannot  yet  speak  English,  and  a  still 
larger  number  who,  though  they  understand  English,  usually  speak 
the  dialect  known  as  Pennsylvania  Dutch. 

Each  of  these  divisions  had  a  distinct  religion  of  its  own,  which 
in  colonial  times  increased  the  desire  for  isolation,  and  the  effect 
of  these  old  controversies  and  feelings  has  by  no  means  worn  away. 

-^^^^  EXERCISE  103. 

Ee-state  and  re-combine  the  following,  so  as  to  bring  out 
the  relationship  of  causes  and  effects.  Give  heed  also  to  the 
principle  of  climax. 

High  Schools  should  be  Generously  Supported. 

^    1.  The  morals  of  a  community  are  improved  when  there  is  a 

body  of  well-educated  people  in  it. 

i^  2.  The  high  schools  afford  a  training  in  industry. 
--— '  3.  Intelligent  voting  demands  higher  qualifications  in  the  voter 

than  ever  before. 
"^    4.  The  high  schools  afford  a  training  in  morality. 
f^    5.  Every  community  is  cursed  by  numbers  of  people  who  have 

never  been  taught  to  do  anything  useful. 
I     6.  The  high  schools  open  the  way  to  a  still  higher  education 

for  many  of  their  pupils. 
-"•  7.  The  high  schools  teach  civics  and  politics. 
\    8.  A  town  without  a  high  school  to  connect  with  the  grades 

below  and  with  college  or  university  above,  is  not  doing  its  duty 

by  the  boys  and  girls. 

EXERCISE  104. 

Expand  your  thoughts  on  the  re-arranged  outline  of  the 
preceding  exercise,  into  an  essay. 


246  Composition-Rhetoric, 


4y^ 


EXERCISE  105. 

Supply  the  missing  cause  or  effect  which  is  needed  with 
each  of  the  following  statements  in  order  to  complete  the 
outline. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene   should   be   More  Generally 
Taught. 

1.  The  proportion  of  unhealthy  and  weak  people  about  us  is 
unnecessarily  great. 

2.  Many  people  do  not  know  how  to  take  care  of  their  health. 

3.  The  efficiency  of  boards  of  health  in  controlling  epidemic  and 
contagious  diseases  is  seriously  impaired  by  the  ignorance  of  people. 

4.  Ill-health  and  lack  of  vigor  in  a  person  hinders  the  discharge 
of  duties. 

EXERCISE  106. 

With  the  material  that  you  have  added  to  the  preceding 
outline,  re-arrange  the  whole  and  write  an  essay  on  the 
subject. 


^t^ 


LESSON"  31. 

The  Time  Order  and  the  Space  Order. 

In  Lesson  13  the  fact  was  noted  that  in  a  paragraph  made 
up  of  narrative  details,  the  details  come  one  after  another  in 
the  order  of  time,  whereas  in  a  descriptive  paragraph  they 
stand  side  by  side  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur  in  space. 
The  details,  whether  in  time  or  space,  are  arranged  accord- 
ing to  their  nearness  to  one  another.  Thus  in  a  story  we 
have  three  natural  divisions  in  the  order  of  time,  (1)  pre- 
paratory material  (which  should  be  made  as  brief  as  pos- 
sible) leading  up  to  the  main  incident,  (2)  the  centre  or 
culmination  of  interest,  and  (3)  the  outcome,  conclusion,  or 
explanation,  stated  as  briefly  as  possible.     In  the  following 


In  What   Order  to  Say  It.       .  247 

the  preparatory  material  occupies  the ^xat-teo  paragraphs; 
the  cenjice  or  cuhnination  of  interest  occupies  the  thirds 
foujih,  and  the  first  half  of  the  fif thjR.vaKra.ph ;  and_the_ 
explanation,  the  lasThaTI  oT"the  fifth  para.g^raph.  In  other 
words,  the  preparatory  material  shows  why  Lincoln  should 
have  taken  up  the  case,  —  as  a  debt  of  gratitude ;  the  main 
incident  shows  how  Lincoln  paid  the  debt  of  gratitude ;  and 
the  conclusion  puts  in  plain  words  the  real  motive  for  telling 
the  story,  —  to  illustrate  one  phase  of  Lincoln's  character. 
The  following  outline  shows  the  order  of  events :  — 

1.  Preparatory  material  in  the  time  order. 

a.   Lincoln's  friendship  for  the  Armstrongs. 
h.    Mrs.  Armstrong's  kindness  to  Lincoln. 

c.  Mrs.  Armstrong's  dependence  on  her  sons. 

d.  Young  Armstrong  charged  with  murder. 

2.  The  centre  or  culmination,  time  order. 

a.    Lincoln  undertakes  to  defend  Armstrong. 
h.   Procures  postponement  and  change  of  place. 

c.  The  trial : 

(1)  Analysis  of  the  evidence.     Discomfiture  of 

the  principal  witness. 

(2)  Lincoln's  plea  before  the  jury. 

d.  The  verdict  of  the  jury. 

3.  The  conclusion. 

a.   Effect  upon  the  widow  and  her  son. 
h.    Eeflection  of  the  writer  of  the  story. 

1.  Mr.  Lincoln's  early  athletic  struggle  with  Jack  Armstrong, 
the  representative  man  of  the  "  Clary's  Grove  Boys,"  will  be 
remembered.  From  the  moment  of  this  struggle,  which  Jack 
agreed  to  call  ''  a  drawn  battle,"  in  consequence  of  his  own  foul 
play,  they  became  strong  friends.  Jack  would  fight  for  Mr. 
Lincoln  at  any  time,  and  would  never  hear  him  spoken  against. 
Indeed,  there  were  times  when  young  Lincoln  made  Jack's  cabin 
his  home,  and  here  Mrs.  Armstrong,  a  most  womanly  person, 
learned  to  respect  the  rising  man. 


248  Composition-Rhetoric, 

2.  There  was  no  service  to  which  she  did  not  make  her  guest 
abundantly  welcome,  and  he  never  ceased  to  feel  the  tenderest 
gratitude  for  her  kindness.  At  length  her  husband  died,  and  she 
became  dependent  upon  her  sons.  The  oldest  of  these,  while 
in  attendance  upon  a  camp-meeting,  found  himself  involved  in 
a  melee  which  resulted  in  the  death  of  a  young  man,  and  young 
Armstrong  was  charged  by  one  of  his  associates  with  striking  the 
fatal  blow.  He  was  arrested,  examined,  and  imprisoned  to  await 
his  trial.  The  public  mind  was  in  a  blaze  of  excitement,  and 
interested  parties  fed  the  flame. 

3.  Mr.  Lincohi  knew  nothing  of  the  merits  of  this  case;  that  is 
certain.  He  only  knew  that  his  old  friend  Mrs.  Armstrong  was  in 
sore  trouble ;  and  he  sat  down  at  once  and  volunteered  by  letter  to 
defend  her  son.  His  first  act  was  to  procure  the  postponement  and 
a  change  of  the  place  of  the  trial.  There  was  too  much  fever  in  the 
minds  of  the  immediate  public  to  permit  of  fair  treatment.  When 
the  trial  came  on,  the  case  looked  very  hopeless  to  all  but  Mr.  Lin- 
coln, who  had  assured  himself  that  the  young  man  was  not  guilty. 

4.  The  evidence  on  behalf  of  the  State  being  all  in,  and  looking 
like  a  solid  and  consistent  mass  of  testimony  against  the  prisoner, 
Mr.  Lincoln  undertook  the  task  of  analyzing  and  destroying  it, 
which  he  did  in  a  manner  that  surprised  every  one.  The  principal 
witness  testified  that  by  the  aid  of  the  brightly  shining  moon  he 
saw  the  prisoner  inflict  the  death-blow  with  a  slung-shot.  Mr. 
Lincoln  proved  by  the  almanac  that  there  was  no  moon  shining  at 
the  time.  The  mass  of  testimony  against  the  prisoner  melted 
away,  until  "  Not  guilty  "  was  the  verdict  of  every  man  present  in 
the  crowded  court-room. 

5.  There  is,  of  course,  no  record  of  the  plea  made  on  this 
occasion,  but  it  is  remembered  as  one  in  which  Mr.  Lincoln  made 
an  appeal  to  the  sympathies  of  the  jury  which  quite  surpassed  his 
usual  efforts  of  the  kind,  and  melted  all  to  tears.  The  jury  were 
out  but  half  an  hour,  when  they  returned  with  the  verdict  of 
"  Not  guilty."  The  widow  fainted  in  the  arms  of  her  son,  who 
divided  his  attention  between  his  services  to  her  and  his  thanks  to 
his  deliverer.  And  thus  the  kind  woman  who  cared  for  the  poor 
young  man,  and  showed  herself  a  mother  to  him  in  his  need, 
received  as  her  reward,  from  the  hand  of  her  grateful  beneficiary, 
the  life  of  a  son,  saved  from  a  cruel  conspiracy.  —  J.  G.  Holland. 


^AJL    pjiiUjd^>^^^^^  '  ^  Y^^ 


^ 


In  What   Order  to  Say  It.  249 

In  description^  the  strict  order  of  nearness  is  not  so  help- 
ful to  the  reader.     The  writer  cannot  tell  all :  if  he  tries  to 
do  so,  he  will  confuse  his  readers  with  a  mass  of  details. 
In  describing  a  building  for  one  who  has  never  seen  it, 
what  is  the  most  essential  thing  for  him  to  know  ?     This 
question  is  best  answered  by  asking  what  one  notices  first 
upon   seeing  the   building.      Evidently,    the   size,    general 
shape,  color,  material,  and  any  striking  architectural  char- 
acteristic.    If  the  reader  is  given  these  facts  at  the  outset, 
the  remainder  of  the  descriptive  details  fall  in  place  natu- 
rally in  the  order  of   their-  nearness  to  each  other.      In 
describing  a  picture,  the  first  thing  to  attract  the  attention  .  j,  ^  \ 
is  the  central  figure,  then  the  foreground,  and  finally  the'^'^X^ 
background.    In  describing  the  appearance  of  a  person,  the  :-  '^ 
peculiarities  of  dress,  walk,  behavior,  are  noticed  first.     In  vV^^ 
all  of  these  the   prominent   features  come  first,  and   the  j^  ^ 
details  follow  in  the  order  of  their  nearness  to  one  another.  j 

The  Taj^is  built  on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna  rather  more  than  a  kjjV^ 
mile  to  the  eastward  of  the  Fort  of  Agra.     It  is  approached  by  a    --.   v 
handsome  road,  cut  through  the  mounds   left   by   the   ruins   of      vw 
ancient  palaces.     Like  the  tomb  of  Akbar,  it  stands  in  a  large      "^ 
garden,  enclosed  by  a  lofty  wall  of  red  sandstone,  with   arched    \\^^ 
galleries  around  the  interior.     The  entrance  is  a  superb  gateway 
of  sandstone,  inlaid   with  ornaments  and  inscriptions  from   the 
Koran,  in  white  marble.     Outside  of  this  grand  portal,  however, 
is  a  spacious  quadrangle  of  solid  masonry  with  an  elegant  structure 
intended  as  a  caravanserai,  on  the  opposite  side.     Whatever  may 
be  the  visitor's  impatience,  he  cannot  help  pausing  to  notice  the 
fine  proportions  ol  these  structures,  and  the  rich  and  massive  style 
of  their  architecture?^  The  gate  to  the  garden  of  the  Taj  is  not  so 
large  as  that  of  Ak^ar's  tomb,  but  quite  as  beautiful  in  design. 
Passing  under  the  open  demi-vault,  whose  arch  hangs  high  above 
you,  an  avenue   of   dark   Italian   cypresses   appears   before   you. 
Down  its  centre  sparkles  a  long  row  of  fountains,  each  casting  up 
a  single  slender  jet.     On  both  sides,  the  palm,  the  banyan,  and  the 
feathery  bamboo  mingle  their  foliage ;  the  song  of  birds  meets 


250  Composition'Rhetoric, 

your  ear,  and  the  odor  of  roses  and  lemon-flowers  sweetens  the  air. 

Dowiisuch  a  vista,  and  over  such  a  foreground,  rises  the  Taj. 

■^jA^^^  It  is  an  octagonal  building,  or  rather  a  square  with  the  corners 

truncated,  and  each  side  precisely  similar.     It  stands  upon  a  lofty 

^^       platform  or  pedestal,  with  a  minaret  at  each  corner,  and  this, 

'XJb^tJL  again,  is  lifted  on  a  vast  terrace  of  solid  masonry.     An  Oriental 

^fl  /     ^dome,  swelling  out  boldly  from  the  base  into  nearly  two-thirds  of 

a  sphere,  and  tapering  at  the  top  into  a  crescent-tipped   spire, 

c-rowns  the  edifice,  rising  from  its  centre,  with  four  similar,  though 

much  smaller,  domes  at  the  corners.     On  each  side  there  is  a 

grand  entrance  formed  by  a  single  pointed  arch,  rising  nearly  to 

the  cornice,  and  two  smaller  arches  (one  placed  above  the  other) 

on  either  hand.     The  height  of  the  building  from  its  base  to  the 

top  of  the  dome  is  262  feet,  and  of  the  minaret  about  200  feet. 

But  no  words  can  convey  an  idea  of  the  exquisite  harmony  of  the 

different  parts,  and  the  grand  and  glorious  effect  of  the  whole 

structure  with  its  attendant  minarets.  —  Bayard  Taylor  :  India, 

China,  and  Japan,  chap.  X. 

The  man  was  elderly,  yet  seemed  bent  more  by  sorrow  and  in- 
firmity than  by  the  weight  of  years.  He  wore  a  mourning  cloak, 
over  a  dress  of  the  sanie  melancholy  color,  cut  in  that  picturesque 
form  which  Vandyck  hh;S  rendered  immortal.  But  although  the 
dress  was  handsome  it  wKs  put  on  and  worn  with  a  carelessness 
which  show^ed  the  mind  ol  the  wearer  ill  at  ease.  His  aged,  yet 
still  handsome,  countenance.,  had  the  same  air  of  consequence 
which  distinguished  his  dress  ^d  his  gait.  A  striking  part  of  his 
appearance  was  a  long  white  beard,  which  descended  far  over  the 
breast  of  his  slashed  doublet,  and  looked  singular  from  its  contrast 
in  color  with  his  habit.  —  Scott  :  Woodstock,  chap.  II. 

Ill  narratives  follow  the  time  order.  In  descriptions  give  first 
the  general  characteristics  or  the  most  prominent  features  of  the 
object  described,  then  the  lesser  details  in  the  order  of  nearness. 


EXERCISE  107. 

Make  a  list  of  the  details  of  the  following  description. 
Account  for  the  order  in  which  the  details  are  given. 


b< 


y->^ 


•      In  What  Order  to  Say  It,  251 

In  the  dreary  waste  of  Arabia,  a  boundless  level  of  sand  is 
intersected  by  sharp  and  naked  mountains ;  and  the  face  of  the 
desert,  without  shade  or  shelter,  is  scorched  by  the  direct  and 
intense  rays  of  a  tropical  sun.  Instead  of  refreshing  breezes,  the 
winds,  particularly  from  tlie  southwest,  diffuse  a  noxious  and 
even  deadly  vapor;  the  hillocks  of  sand  which  they  alternately 
raise  and  scatter  are  compared  to  the  billows  of  the  ocean,  and 
whole  caravans,  w^hole  armies,  have  been  lost  and  buried  in  the 
whirlwind.  The  common  benefits  of  water  are  an  object  of 
desire  and  contest;  and  such  is  the  scarcity  of  wood,  that  some 
art  is  requisite  to  preserve  and  propagate  the  element  of  fire. 
Arabia  is  destitute  of  navigable  rivers,  which  fertilize  the  soil 
and  convey  its  produce  to  the  adjacent  regions ;  the  torrents  that 
fall  from  the  hills  are  imbibed  by  the  thirsty  earth ;  the  rare  and 
hardy  plants,  the  tamarind  or  the  acacia,  that  strike  their  roots 
into  the  clefts  of  the  rocks,  are  nourished  by  the  dews  of  the 
night :  a  scanty  supply  of  rain  is  collected  in  cisterns  and  aque- 
ducts :  the  wells  and  springs  are  the  secret  treasure  of  the  desert ; 
and  the  pilgrim  of  Mecca,  after  many  a  dry  and  sultry  march,  is 
disgusted  by  the  taste  of  the  waters,  which  have  rolled  over  a  bed 
of  sulphur  or  salt. 

Such  is  the  general  and  genuine  picture  of  the  climate  of 
Arabia.  The  experience  of  evil  enhances  the  value  of  any  local 
or  partial  enjoyments.  A  shady  grove,  a  green  pasture,  a  stream 
of  fresh  water,  are  sufficient  to  ^attract  a"  colony  of  sedentary 
Arabs  to  the  fortunate  spots  which  can  afford  food  and  refresh- 
ment to  themselves  and  their  cattle,  and  which  encourage  their 
industry  in  the  cultivation  of  the  palm-tree  and  the  vine.  The 
high  lands  that  border  on  the  Indian  Ocean  are  distinguished  by 
their  superior  plenty  of  wood  and  water:  the  air  is  more  tem- 
perate, the  fruits  are  more  delicious,  the  animals  and  the  human 
race  more  numerous :  the  fertility  of  the  soil  invites  and  rewards 
the  toil  of  the  husbandman ;  and  peculiar  gifts  of  frankincense 
and  coffee  have  attracted  in  different  ages  the  merchants  of  the 
world. 

Arabia,  in  the  opinion  of  the  naturalist,  is  the  genuine  and 
original  country^  of  the  horse ;  the  climate  most  propitious,  not 
indeed  to  the  size,  but  to  the  spirit  and  swiftness,  of  that  generous 
animal.     The  merit  of   the  Barb,  the  Spanish,  and  the  English 


252  Composition-Rhetoric, 

breed,  is  derived  from  a  mixture  of  Arabian  blood ;  the  Bedoweens 
preserve,  with  superstitious  care,  the  honors  and  the  memory  of 
the  purest  race :  the  males  are  sold  at  a  high  price,  but  the 
females  are  seldom  alienated :  and  the  birth  of  a  noble  foal  is 
esteemed,  among  the  tribes,  as  a  subject  of  joy  and  mutual  con- 
gratulation. These  horses  are  educated  in  tents,  among  the  chil- 
dren of  the  Arabs,  with  a  tender  familiarity  which  trains  them  in 
the  habits  of  gentleness  and  attachment.  They  are  accustomed 
only  to  walk  and  to  gallop :  their  sensations  are  not  blunted  by 
the  incessant  abuse  of  the  spur  and  the  whip :  their  powers  are 
reserved  for  the  moments  of  flight  and  pursuit ;  but  no  sooner  do 
they  feel  the  touch  of  the  hand  or  the  stkrup,  than  they  dart 
away  with  the  swiftness  of  the  wind :  and  if  their  friend  be  dis- 
mounted in  the  rapid  career,  they  instantly  stop  till  he  has  recov- 
ered his  seat. 

In  the  sands  of  Africa  and  Arabia  the  camel  is  a  sacred  and 
precious  gift.  That  strong  and  patient  beast  of  burden  can  per- 
form, without  eating  or  drinking,  a  journey  of  several  days ;  and 
a  reservoir  of  fresh  water  is  preserved  in  a  large  bag,  a  fifth 
stomach  of  the  animal,  whose  body  is  imprinted  with  the  marks 
of  servitude  :  the  larger  breed  is  capable  of  transporting  a  weight 
of  a  thousand  pounds ;  and  the  dromedary,  of  a  lighter  and  more 
active  frame,  outstrips  the  fleetest  courser  in  the  race.  Alive  or 
dead,  almost  every  part  of  the  camel  is  serviceable  to  man :  her 
milk  is  plentiful  and  nutritious ;  the  young  and  tender  flesh  has 
the  taste  of  veal ;  and  the  long  hair,  which  falls  each  year  and  is 
renewed,  is  coarsely  manufactured  into  the  garments,  the  furni- 
ture, and  the  tents  of  the  Bedoweens. 

The  perpetual  independence  of  the^Arabs  has  beeii-fclifi  theme 
of  praise  among  strangers  and  natives ;  and  the  arts  of  contro- 
versy transform  this  singular  event  into  a  prophecy  and  a  miracle, 
in  favor  of  the  posterity  of  Ishmael.  Some  exceptions,  that  can 
neither  be  dissembled  nor  eluded,  render  this  mode  of  reasoning 
as  indiscreet  as  it  is  superfluous.  Yet  these  exceptions  are  tempo- 
rary or  local;  the  body  of  the  nation  has  escaped  the  yoke  of  the 
most  powerful  monarchies;  the  armies  of  Sesostris  and  Cyrus,  of 
Pompey  and  Trajan,  could  never  achieve  the  conquest  of  Arabia ; 
the  present  sovereign  of  the  Turks  may  exercise  a  shadow  of 
jurisdiction,  but  his  pride  is  reduced  to  solicit  the  friendship  of  i\ 


In  What   Order  to  Say  It,  253 

people  whom  it  is  dangerous  to  provoke,  and  fruitless  to  attack. 
The  obvious  causes  of  their  freedom  are  inscribed  on  the  charac- 
ter and  country  of  the  Arabs.  Many  ages  before  Mahomet,  their 
intrepid  valor  had  been  severely  felt  by  their  neighbors,  in  offen- 
sive and  defensive  war.  The  patient  and  active  virtues  of  a 
soldier  are  insensibly  nursed  in  the  habits  and  discipline  \oi  a 
pastoral  life.  The  care  of  the  sheep  and  camels  is  abandoned  to 
the  women  of  the  tribe ;  but  the  martial  youth,  under  the  banner 
of  the  emir,  is  ever  on  horseback,  and  in  the  field,  to  practise  the 
exercise  of  the  bow,  the  javelin,  and  the  scymetar. 

The  long  memory  of  their  independence  is  the  firmest  pledge 
of  its  perpetuity,  and  succeeding  generations  are  animated  to 
prove  their  descent,  and  to  maintain  their  inheritance.  In  the 
more  simple  state  of  the  Arabs,  the  nation  is  free,  because  each 
of  her  sons  disdains  a  base  submission  to  the  wdll  of  a  master. 
His  breast  is  fortified  with  the  austere  virtues  of  courage,  patience, 
and  sobriety;  the  love  of  independence  prompts  him  to  exercise 
the  habits  of  self-command  ;  and  the  fear  of  dishonor  guards  him 
from  the  meaner  apprehension  of  pain,  of  danger,  and  of  death. 
The  gravity  and  firmness  of  the  mind  is  conspicuous  in  his  out- 
ward demeanor:  his  speech  is  slow,  weighty,  and  concise;  he  is 
seldom  provoked  to  laughter ;  his  only  gesture  is  that  of  stroking 
his  beard,  the  venerable  symbol  of  manhood ;  and  the  sense  of  his 
own  importance  teaches  him  to  accost  his  equals  without  levity, 
and  his  superiors  without  awe. 

EXERCISE  108. 

Make  a  complete  analysis  of  the  following,  arranging  the 
time  elements  in  their  order  as  main  headings,  with  the 
descriptive  details  in  their  order  as  sub-headings. 

Yarious  portions  of  our  country  have  at  different  periods  suf- 
fered severely  from  the  influence  of  violent  storms  of  wind,  some 
of  which  have  been  known  to  traverse  nearly  the  whole  extent  of 
the  United  States,  and  to  leave  such  deep  impressions  in  their 
wake  as  will  not  easily  be  forgotten.  Having  witnessed  one  of 
these  awful  phenomena,  in  all  its  grandeur,  I  will  attempt  to 
describe  it.     The  recollection   of   that   astonishing  revolution   of 


^^^^vuru/iA^owtW  ^sf^^^^ 


4 


^**0^54  Composition-Rhetoric, 

N  ^he  ethereal  element  even  now  brings  with  it  so  disagreeable  a 
•^  ^Sensation,  that  I  feel  as  if  about  to  be  affected  by  a  sudden  stop- 
page of  the  circulation  of  my  blood. 
I  had  left  the  village  of  Shawaney,  situated  on  the  banks  of 
s^,^tiie  Ohio,  on  my  return  from  Henderson,  which  is  also  situated  on 
'S^wle  banks  of  the  same  beautiful  stream.     The  weather  was  pleas- 
^^ant,  and  I  thought  not  warmer  than  usual  at  that  season.     My 
^      horse  was  jogging  quietly  along,  and  my  thoughts  were,  for  once 
'^      at  least  in  the  course  of  my  life,  entirely  engaged  in  commercial 
speculations.     I  had  forded  Highland  Creek,  and  was  on  the  eve 
of  entering  a  tract  of  bottom  land  or  valley  that  lay  between  it 
and  Canoe  Creek,  when  on  a  sudden  I  remarked  a  great  difference 
in  the  aspect  of  the  heavens.     A  hazy  thickness  had  overspread 
the  country,  and  I  for  some  time  expected  an  earthquake,  but  my 
horse  exhibited  no  propensity  to  stop  and  prepare  for  such  an 
occLirrer^ce.     I  had  nearly  arrived  at  the  verge  of  the  valley,  when 
r  thought  fit  to  stop  near  a  brook,  and  dismounted  to  quench  the 
thirst  which  had  come  upon  me. 

I  was  leaning  on  my  knees,  with  my  lips  about  to  touch  the 
water,  when,  from  my  proximity  to  the  earth,  I  heard  a  distant 
murmuring  sound  of  an  extraordinary  nature.  I  drank,  however, 
and  as  I  rose  on  my  feet,  looked  toward  the  south-west,  where  I 
observed  a  yellowish  oval  spot,  the  appearance  of  which  was  quite 
new  to  me.  Little  time  was  left  me  for  consideration,  as  the  next 
moment  a  smart  breeze  began  to  agitate  the  taller  trees.  It  in- 
creased to  an  unexpected  height,  and  already  the  smaller  branches 
and  twigs  were  seen  falling  in  a  slanting  direction  towards  the 
ground..  Two  minutes  had  scarcely  elapsed,  when  the  whole  forest 
before  me  was  in  fearful  motion.  Here  and  there,  where  one 
tree  pressed  against  another,  a  creaking  noise  was  produced,  simi- 
lar to  that  occasioned  by  the  violent  gusts  which  sometimes  sweep 
over  the  country.  Turning  instinctively  toward  the  direction 
•om  which  the  wind  blew,  I  saw,  to  my  great  astonishment,  that 
►noblest  trees  of  the  forest  bent  their  lofty  heads  for  a  while, 
unable  to  stand  against  the  blast,  were  falling  into  pieces. 
First,  the  branches  were  broken  off  with  a  crackling  noise ;  then 
went  the  upper  part  of  the  massy  trunks ;  and  in  many  places 
lole  trees  of  gigantic  size  were  falling  entire  to  the  ground.  So 
rapid  was  the  progress  of  the  storm,  that  before  I  could  think  of 


In  What  Order  to  Say  It,  255 

taking  measures  to  insure  my  safety,  the  hurricane  was  passing 
opposite  the  place  where  I  stood.  Never  can  I  forget  the  scene 
which  at  that  moment  presented  itself.  The  tops  of  the  trees 
were  seen  moving  in  the  strangest  manner,  in  the  central  current 
of  the  tempest,  which  carried  along  with  it  a  mingled  mass  of 
twigs  and  foliage,  that  completely  obscured  the  view.  Some 
of  the  largest  trees  were  seen  bending  and  writhing  under  the 
gale ;  others  suddenly  snapped  across ;  and  many,  after  a  momen- 
tary resistance,  fell  uprooted  to  the  earth.  The  mass  of  branches, 
twigs,  foliage,  and  dust  that  moved  through  the  air,  was  whirled 
onwards  like  a  cloud  of  feathers,  and  on  passing,  disclosed  a  wide 
space  filled  with  fallen  trees,  naked  stumps,  and  heaps  of  shapeless 
ruins,  which  marked  the  path  of  the  tempest.  This  space  was 
about  a  fourth  of  a  mile  in  breadth,  and  to  my  imagination  re- 
sembled the  dried-up  bed  of  the  Mississippi,  with  its  thousands 
of  planters  and  sawyers,  strewed  in  the  sand,  and  inclined  in 
various  degrees.  The  horrible  noise  resembled  that  of  the  great 
<^ataracts  of  Niagara,  and  as  it  howled  along  in  the  track  of  the 
desolating  tempest,  produced  a  feeling  in,- my  mind  which  it  is    4 — 


impossible  to  describe,    ^^p^  6H\JjL    ihuOVMJt4J^  ,    ^^^ 
The  principal  force  of  the  hi^ricane  was  now  over,  although  /'.i^ 
millions  of  twigs  and  small  branches,  that  had  been  brought  from  ^(^ 
a  great  distance,  were  seen  following  the  blast,  as  if  drawn  onwards  QjbuU 
by  some  mysterious  power.     They  even  floated  in  the  air  for  some  ' 
hours  after,  as  if  supported  by  the  thick  mass  of  dust  that  rose 
high  above  the  ground.     The  sky  had  now  a  greenish  lurid  hue, 
and  an  extremely  sulphureous  odor  was  diffused   in   the   atmos- 
phere.    I   waited  in    amazement,   having   sustained  no   material 
injury,  until  nature  at  length  resumed  her  wonted  aspect.     For 
some  moments,  I  felt  undetermined  whether  I  should  return  to 
]M  organ  town,  or  attempt  to  force  my  way  through  the  wrecks  of 
the  tempest.     My  business,  however,  being  of  an  urgent  nature,  I 
ventured  into  the  path  of  the  storm,  and  after  encountering  in- 
numerable difficulties,  succeeded  in  crossing  it.     I  was  obliged  to 
(ead  my  horse  by  the  bridle,  to  enable  him  to  leap  over  the  fallen 
trees,  whilst  I  scrambled  over  or  under  them  in  the  best  way  I 
could,  at  times  so  hemmed  in  by  the  broken  tops  and  tangled 
branches,  as   almost   to   become    desperate.     On   arriving  at  my 
house,  I  gave  an  account  of  what  I  had  seen,  when,  to  my  sur- 


266  Composition'Rhetoric, 

prise,  I  was  told  that  there  had  been  very  little  wind  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, although  in  the  streets  and  gardens  many  branches  and 
twigs  had  fallen  in  a  manner  which  excited  great  surprise. 

Many  wondrous  accounts  of  the  devastating  effect  of  this  hurri- 
cane were  circulated  in  the  country,  after  its  occurrence.  Some 
log  houses,  w^e  were  told,  had  been  overturned  and  their  inmates 
destroyed.  One  person  informed  me  that  a  wire  sifter  had  been 
conveyed  by  the  gust  to  a  distance  of  many  miles.  Another  had 
found  a  cow  lodged  in  the  fork  of  a  half -broken  tree.  But,  as  I 
am  disposed  to  relate  only  what  I  have  myself  seen,  I  will  not  lead 
you  into  the  region  of  romance,  but  shall  content  myself  with  say- 
ing that  much  damage  was  done  by  this  awful  visitation.  The 
valley  is  yet  a  desolate  place,  overgrown  with  briars  and  bushes, 
thickly  entangled  amidst  the  tops  and  trunks  of  the  fallen  trees, 
and  is  the  resort  of  ravenous  animals,  to  which  they  betake  them- 
selves when  pursued  by  man,  or  after  they  have  committed  their 
depredations  on  the  farms  of  the  surrounding  district.  I  have 
crossed  the  path  of  the  storm,  at  a  distance  of  a  hundred  miles 
from  the  spot  where  I  w^itnessed  its  fury,  and,  again,  four  hundred 
miles  farther  off  in  the  State  of  Ohio.  Lastly,  I  observed  traces 
of  its  ravages  on  the  summits  of  the  mountains  connected  with  the 
Great  Pine  Forest  of  Pennsylvania,  three  hundred  miles  beyond 
the  place  last  mentioned.  In  all  these  different  parts,  it  appeared 
to  me  not  tb^^aie^  e^eeded  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  breadth. — 
Audubon.        ^  t  y^ 

^   7  EXERCISE   109. 

Make  a  list  of  the  points  you  would  mention  if  asked  to  write 
on  one  of  the  following  topics.  In  what  order  would  you  treat  of 
the  points  in  your  list  ?  i 

1.  A  public  building  in  your  town. 

2.  An  historical  incident. 

,3.  A  scene  on  the  playground. 

4.  The  most  remarkable  person  you  ever  met. 

5.  An  interesting  picture. 

6.  A  personal  adventure. 

7.  The  picture  of  a  battle. 


In  What   Order  to  Say  It.  257 


8.  The  coming  of  the  storm. 

9.  A  shower  during  a  picnic. 

10.   A  race  —  waiting  for  the  signal. 


EXERCISE   110. 

Write  an  essay  on  one  of  the  outlines  made  in  the  last 


exercise. 

LESSON    32, 


:1*^- 


Sentence- Order  for  Clearness  and  Empliasis. 

In  the  English  sentence,  the  proper  placing  of  words  is 
all-important.  Carelessness  in  this  respect  is  almost  sure 
to  result  in  ambiguity,  for  (excepting  in  the  case  of  pro- 
nouns and  nouns  in  the  possessive)  there  is  nothing  in  the 
form  of  English  words  to  indicate  their  office.  We  rely 
almost  entirely  upon  the  position  of  a  word,  phrase,  or 
clause  in  the  sentence  for  determining  to  what  element  it  is 
to  be  joined.  The  rule  for  arranging  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses  is  to  place  them  so  that  they  cannot  fail  to  refer 
to  the  one  element  which  they  modify. 

In  the  following  selection  (fourth  sentence)  the  words 
"  at  first "  were  introduced  at  one  of  the  points  indicated 
by  the  caret  (y^).  If  these  words  were  introduced  at  the 
first  caret,  the  meaning  would  be  clearly  that  after  a  time 
she  continued  to  feed  them,  but  at  irregular  intervals. 
Sentences  5  to  9  show,  however,  that  this  is  probably 
not  the  meaning  intended  by  the  writer.  If  the  words 
"  at  first "  were  introduced  at  the  third  caret,  the  meaning 
would  be  clear,  that  she  continued  to  feed  them  regularly 
and  did  not  seem  at  first  to  notice  the  fact  that  they  were 
captives.  Sentences  5  to  9  show  that  this  is  probably 
the  meaning  intended  by  the  writer.  But  the  writer  placed 
the  words  "  at  first ''  at  the  second  caret,  and  the  meaning 


258  Composition-Rhetoric. 

was  consequently  not  clear.  One  could  not  tell  at  a  glance 
whether  the  writer  meant  "  regularly  at  first "  or  "  at  first 
not  seeming  to  notice."  When  a  sentence-element  is  thus 
faultily  placed,  it  is  said  to  squint.  The  squinting  con- 
struction should  be  avoided. 

1.  About  a  week  ago,  we  captured  a  nest  of  young  orioles. 

2.  We  put  them  in  a  cage  and  hung  them  in  a  tree,  intending 
to   release   them   after   studying    their  development  a  few  days. 

3.  Their  mother  was  seen  about,  calling  them,  and  after  a  little 
while,  she  brought  them  some  worms.  4.  ^  She  continued  regu- 
larly to  feed  them  /\  not  seeming  ^  to  notice  the  fact  that  they 
were  captives.  5.  But  Sunday  there  came  a  tragedy.  6.  She 
brought  them  a  sprig  of  green  and  disappeared,  not  returning  any 
more.  7.  In  less  than  an  hour  after  picking  at  the  sprig,  the 
captives  were  dead.  8.  We  found  it  to  be  the  deadly  larkspur,  a 
weed  that  will  kill  full-grown  cattle.  9.  Evidently  the  mother 
had  sternly  resolved  that  her  offspring  should  die  by  her  own  act 
rather  than  live  in  captivity.  10.  The  theory  /^  that  some  of  the 
feathered  tribe  will  murder  their  captive  young  ^  is  now  accepted  /^ 
with  confidence  ^. 

In  the  tenth  sentence  the  writer  inserted  at  the  second 
caret  the  words  "  long  held  by  observers  of  birds."  In  that 
position  it  was  not  clear  whether  the  word  "  held  "  refers 
to  "young"  or  to  "theory."  If  "held"  refers  to  "theory" 
(as  is  probable),  the  words  "long  held  by  observers  of  birds  " 
should  be  inserted  at  the  first  caret.  In  the  same  sentence 
the  writer  added  at  the  last  caret  the  words  "  in  the  scien- 
tific world."  Doubtless  the  writer  meant,  not  "with  con- 
fidence in  the  scientific  world,"  but  "  accepted  in  the  scien- 
tific world  with  confidence,"  or  better  still  "accepted  by 
scientists  with  confidence." 

In  the  following  the  writer  used  the  words  "  with  regret " 
at  the  second  caret  in  the  second  sentence.  From  the  con- 
text it  seems  probable  that  "  looked  back  with  regret "  is 
the  meaning  intended,  not  "  wandering  with  regret." 


In  What   Order  to  Say  It,  \259 

He  felt  that  he  had  gained  nothing  in  yielding  himself  to  his 
great  sorrow  without  a  struggle.  He  now  looked  back  ^  upon 
those  years  which  he  had  si)ent  in  aimless  wandering  ^.  Work, 
—  he  now  saw  plainly, — steady,  unremitting  work,  is  the  only 
effective  remedy  for  sorrow. 

/'  Related  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  should  be  brought  as 
close  as  possible  to  the  elements  which  they  modify.  The 
expressions  most  likely  to  be  misplaced  are  only^  (which 
is  least  ambiguous  when  it  stands  immediately  before  the 
expression  it  modifies)  ;  not  only  —  hut  also  (the  two  parts 
of  which  should  stand  before  the  same  parts  of  speech); 
indeed,  never,  even,  always;  the  prepositions  to,  for,  of,  by 
(which  are  often  left  stranded  at  the  end  of  a  sentence, 
separated  too  far  from  the  words  to  which  they  belong)  ; 
at  least,  at  any  rate,  at  all  events,  in  truth,  to  be  sure,  in  fact. 
Constant  watchfulness  is  needed  in  placing  these  expressions. 
The  following  sentences  show  the  correct  use  of  some  of 
the  expressions  just  named.  The  carets  show  the  points  in 
the  sentence  at  which  the  italicized  expression  is  liable  to 
be  inserted  by  a  careless  writer. 

The  condition  of  the  poor  is  only  ameliorated  f^  by  the  philan- 
thropy of  the  rich  (i.e.  no  lasting  reform  is  brought  about). 

The  condition  of  the  poor  is  /y^  ameliorated  only  by  the  philan- 
thropy of  the  rich  (i.e.  there  is  no  other  ameliorating  agency). 

Sir  Walter  Scott's  works  were  y\  exceedingly  popular  not  only 
with  his  countrymen,  hut  also  with  the  educated  classes  in  every 
other  civilized  country. 

They  ^  intend  /^  to  pass  not  only  ajiother  high  tariff  bill,  hut  also 
a  reciprocity  bill. 

He  j('  ought  at  least  to  ^  apologize  /^^  for  his  conduct. 

He  was  now  compelled  to  defer  to  men  for  whose  opinions  he 
had  never  entertained  much  respect  ^.    , 

1  For  a  discussion  of  this  troublesome  adverb  the  teacher  may  consult 
Modern  Language  Notes  for  November,  1895:  "The  Misplacement  of 
Only.'^ 


260 


Ooraposition- Rhetoric. 


When  the  sentence  is  long  and  the  clauses  are  numerous, 
great  skill  is  needed  in  placing  the  parts  so  that  the  mean- 
ing shall  be  clear  at  once.  The  following  sentence  secures 
clearness  at  the  close  by  placing  the  predicate,  "  was  to  be 
decided,"  before  the  subject,  "the  question."  If  the  predi- 
cate were  placed  in  its  usual  position  (indicated  by  the  caret), 
there  would  be  too  wide  a  separation  from  its  subject. 

In  primeval  times  the  plain  of  Latium  must  have  been  the  scene 
of  the  grandest  conflicts  of  nature ;  on  the  one  side,  the  slowly  for- 
mative agency  of  water  was  depositing,  and  on  the  other  side  the 
eruptive  force  of  mighty  volcanoes  was  upheaving  the  successive 
strata  of  that  soil  whereon  was  to  he  decided  the  question  to  what 
people  should  belong  the  sovereignty  of  the  world  ^. 

The  English  sentence  changes  the  natural  order  of  its  ele- 
ments when  one  of  these  is  to  be  made  especially  emphatic. 
Compare  the  following :  — 


I. 

1 .  Kn  o wledge  is  the  indispen- 
sable condition  of  expansion  of 
mind,  and  the  instrument  of 
attaining  to  it.  2.  A  narrow 
mind  is  thought  to  be  that  which 
contains  little  knowledge;  and 
an  enlarged  mind,  that  which 
holds  a  great  deal ;  and  the  fact 
of  the  great  number  of  studies 
which  are  pursued  in  a  Univer- 
sity, by  its  very  profession,  seems 
to  put  the  matter  beyond  dis- 
pute. 


II. 

1.  The  indispensable  condi- 
tion of  expansion  of  mind,  and 
the  instrument  of  attaining  to 
it,  is  knowledge.  2.  A  narrow 
mind  is  thought  to  be  that  which 
contains  little  knowledge ;  and 
an  enlarged  mind,  that  which 
holds  a  great  deal;  and  what 
seems  to  put  the  matter  beyond 
dispute  is  the  fact  of  the  great 
number  of  studies  which  are 
pursued  in  a  University,  by  its 
very  profession. 


The  change  of  the  word  "  knowledge  "  from  the  beginning 
to  the  end  of  the  first  sentence  makes  it  more  emphatic.  In 
the  second  sentence,  first  column,  "seems  to  put  the  matter 
beyond  dispute  "  occupies  the  place  of  emphasis,  at  the  end. 
Notice  that  the  word  "what"  is  used,  in  the  second  column, 


In  What   Order  to  Say  It, 


261 


as  a  sort  of  temporary  subject,  with  two  purposes  in  view, 
(1)  to  bring  "  seems  to  put  the  matter  beyond  dispute  "  in 
an  unemphatic  position,  and  (2)  to  defer  the  emphasis  until 
the  word  "  is  "  has  been  passed.  These  illustrations  show 
that  the  subject  gains  emphasis  by  being  changed  to  a  posi- 
tion at  or  near  the  end  of  the  sentence.  The  converse  of 
this  statement  is  true  of  the  predicate,  but,  in  prose,  the 
])redicate  cannot  usually  stand  first  as  it  does  in  the  poetical 
line,  "jS'ow  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight." 
In  the  folloAving  the  predicate  *Ms  not  and  cannot  be"  is 
brought  emphatically  before  the  subject  by  means  of  the 
introductory  word  "there." 

The  gentleman  speaks  fluently  of  a  community  of  interests  be- 
tween the  two  sections.  There  is  not  and  cannot  be  a  community 
of  interests  so  long  as  the  union  is  part  slave  and  part  free. 

Emphasis  is  gained  for  a  modifying  word  by  placing  it 
after  the  word  it  modifies.  Such  a  change  may  also  avoid 
awkwardness  of  expression,  as  in  the  first  sentence  below. 


1 .  He  speaks  on  too  deep  topics 
to  be  readily  understood  by  the 
common  people. 

2.  ]N'o  government  can  carry 
on  a  war  without  strongly  feeling 
tlie  impulse  to  aggrandize  its 
own  powers  and  to  put  its  oppo- 
nents and  its  critics  down  with 
a  strong  hand. 

3.  The  framers  of  the  con- 
stitution had  to  give  to  the 
government  a  permanent  and 
conservative  form. 

4.  I  cannot  express  the  regret 
and  sorrow  with  which  I  con- 
template the  heavy  loss  I  have 


n. 

1.  He  speaks  on  topics  too  deep 
to  be  readily  understood  by  the 
common  people. 

2.  No  government  can  carry 
on  a  war  without /eeZm^  strongly 
the  impulse  to  aggrandize  its 
own  powers  and  to  put  its  oppo- 
nents and  its  critics  down  with 
a  strong  hand. 

3.  The  framers  of  the  consti- 
tution had  to  give  to  the  gov- 
ernment a  form  permanent  and 
conservative. 

4.  I  cannot  express  the  regret 
and  sorrow  with  which  I  con- 
template the  heavy  loss  I  have 


262 


Composition-Rhetoric, 


sustained.  Believe  me,  nothing 
except  a  lost  battle  is  so  terrible 
as  a  won  battle.  The  glory  aris- 
ing from  such  actions  is  no  con- 
solation to  me,  and  I  cannot 
suggest  that  it  has  any  consola- 
tion to  you. 


sustained.  Believe  me,  nothing 
except  a  battle  lost  is  so  terrible 
as  a  battle  won.  The  glory  aris- 
ing from  such  actions  is  no  con- 
solation to  me,  and  I  cannot 
suggest  that  it  has  any  consola- 
tion to  you.  —  Wellington  : 
Letter  written  on  the  Eve  of 
Waterloo. 


The  following  sentences  illustrate  how  emphasis  is  gained, 
by  change  of  position,  for  phrases  and  clauses :  — 

I.  II. 


1.  Though  he  was  an  invet- 
erate smoker  himself,  he  would 
preach  to  his  congregation  on 
the  evils  of  smoking. 

2.  If  his  acts  did  not  belie  his 
words,  he  would  exert  greater 
influence. 

3.  When  the  time  for  action 
has  come,  the  people  always  rise 
to  the  occasion. 

4.  Wherever  you  put  him,  he 
proves  himself  competent. 

5.  Provided  you  have  plenty 
of  good  ideas,  it  is  not  very 
hard  to  write. 

6.  The  hand  of  death  was 
upon  him  ;  he  knew  it ;  and  the 
only  wish  which  he  uttered  was 
that  sword  in  hand  he  might  die. 

7.  It  is  always  difficult  to 
separate  the  literary  character 
of  a  man  who  lives  in  our  own 
time  from  his  personal  char- 
acter. It  is  peculiarly  difficult 
in  the  case  of  Lord  Byron  to 
make  this  separation. 


1.  He  would  preach  to  his 
congregation  on  the  evils  of 
smoking,  though  he  was  an  in- 
veterate smoker  himself. 

2.  He  would  exert  greater 
influence,  if  his  acts  did  not 
belie  his  words. 

3.  The  people  always  rise  to 
the  occasion,  when  the  time  for 
action  has  come. 

4.  He  proves  himself  compe- 
tent, wherever  you  put  him. 

5.  It  is  not  very  hard  to  write, 
provided  you  have  plenty  of 
good  ideas. 

6.  The  hand  of  death  was 
upon  him ;  he  knew  it ;  and  the 
only  wish  which  he  uttered  was 
that  he  might  die  sivord  in  hand. 

7.  It  is  always  difficult  to 
separate  the  literary  character 
of  a  man  who  lives  in  our  own 
time  from  his  personal  char- 
acter. It  is  peculiarly  difficult 
to  make  this  separation  in  the 
case  of  Lord  Byron. 


In  What  Order  to  Say  It.  263 

Arrange  tlie  parts  of  sentences  so  ttat  the  bearing  of  one  part  on 
another  will  be  clearly  understood.  To  emphasize  any  part,  put  it 
out  of  its  usual  position.  .    ^ 


EXERCISE  111. 

Insert  the  bracketed  expression  so  as  to  bring  out  the 
meaning  intended.  Try  it  in  different  places,  and  note  the 
different  meanings  that  result. 

1.  In  this  grate,  all  the  heat  goes  up  the  chimney  instead  of 
coming  into  the  room  [as  usual]. 

2.  It  requires  a  great  deal  of  reading,  or  a  wide  range  of  infor- 
mation, to  warrant  us  in  putting  forth  our  opinions  on  any  serious 
subject ;  and,  without  such  learning,  the  most  original  mind  may 
be  able  to  dazzle,  to  amuse,  to  refute,  to  perplex,  but  not  to  come 
to  any  useful  result  or  any  trustworthy  conclusion  [indeed]. 
There  are  persons  who  profess  a  different  view  of  the  matter, 
and  even  act  on  it  [indeed]. 

3.  One  would  be  inclined  to  think  that  the  picture  is  without 
any  meaning;  but  the  full  meaning  gradually  comes  to  the  be- 
holder [after  repeated  inspections]. 

4.  The  speech  of  Lord  Strafford,  upon  his  trial,  is  one  of  the 
most  simple,  touching,  and  noble  in  our  language  [in  my  opinion]. 

EXERCISE  112. 

At  which  of  the  points  indicated  by  carets  should  the 
bracketed  clauses  be  inserted  ?  What  is  the  relative  gain 
in  each  case  ? 

1.  Our  ancestors  came  from  England  with  the  appetite  for  news 
already  developed.  After  permanent  settlements  had  been  made, 
and  they  were  ready  to  enjoy  some  of  the  comforts  of  life,  the 
desire  y\  increased  /^  [that  they  might  know  w^hat  their  neighbors 
were  doing,  and  what  was  going  on  in  the  Old  World]. 

2.  All  news  items,  except  those  of  a  strictly  personal  character, 
were  set  down  by  the  postmaster,  and  were  repeated  by  him  to  the 
people.     Often  j^  he  would  make  written  circulars  containing  the 


264  Composition- Rhetoric, 

news,  and  /^  would  vend  them  to  callers  at  the  postoffice  /^  [iu 
order  to  save  time,  and,  perhaps,  to  make  a  trifle  of  money]. 

3.  The  postmaster  at  Boston  had  so  many  of  these  news  circu- 
lars to  write  that  he  determined  to  print  them.  This  was  in  1704, 
when  Boston  had  a  population  of  8000.  But  /^  he  ^  had  /^  to  get 
permission  from  the  colonial  legislature  ^,  for  that  body  had 
ah*eady  asserted  its  determination  to  regulate  printed  publica- 
tions [before  he  dared  to  carry  his  plan  into  effect]. 

4.  /^  In  the  midst  of  much  curiosity  and  enthusiasm,  y\  the  first 
issue  of  The  Boston  News-Letter  made  its  appearance,  April  24, 
1704,  y\  with  Postmaster  Campbell  as  editor  ^  [after  the  legislat- 
ure had  duly  granted  the  necessary  permission]. 

5.  The  first  sheet  was  taken  damp  from  the  press,  by  Chief 
Justice  Sewell  ^  as  a  wonderful  cariosity  ^  [in  order  that  he 
might  show  it  to  President  Willard  of  Harvard  College]. 

6.  The  News-Letter  /^  continued  publication  through  seventy- 
two  years  y\  [a  complete  file  of  which  is  in  possession  of  the  New 
York  Historical  Association] . 

7.  /\  It  was  printed,  sometimes  on  a  single  sheet  of  foolscap, 
and  /\  often  on  a  half-sheet,  two  columns  on  each  side  ^  [because 
paper  was  very  expensive]. 

-AJ-^         exercise  113. 

Eead  the  following  selection  carefully,  and  perform  the 
work  prescribed  at  the  close  :  — 

l.l  The  habitual  prejudice,  the  humor  of  the  moment,\»^ the 
turnihg-point  which  leads  us  to  read  a  defence  in  a  good  sense  or 
a  badya^  2.  We  interpret  the  defence  by  our  antecedent  impres- 
sions. \.  The  very  same  sentiments,[according  as  our  jealousy  is 
or  is  not  awake,  or  our  aversion  stimulated^are  tokens  of  truth  or 
of  dissimulation  and  pretence.  4.  There  is  a  story  of  a  sane 
person  hrin^  by  mistftlir^  shut  up  in  the  wards  of  a  lunatic  asy- 
lunif^V^^'tlm^^fe^he  pleaded  his  cause  to  some  strangers  visiting 
the 'establishment,  the  only  remark  he  elicited,  in  answer,  was, 
"  How  naturally  he  talks  !  you  would  think  he  was  in  his  senses." 
5.  Controversies  should  be  decided  by  the  reason ;  is  iLipgitimRit^ 
w.a*faf6^  appeal  to  the  misgivings  of  the  public  mind,  and  to  its 


f)    ^  ^.      In  What  Order  to  Say  It,  265 

disliking^'?  6.  Anyhow,  if  ni^  accuser  is  able  tlufe  to  practise  /JWAJ 
upon  my  readers,  the  more  I  succeed,  the  less  wt^^jiSSe  my  success.  ^;(jj"^jlj^ 
7.  If  I  am  natural,  he  will  tell  them  "Ars  est  celare  artem  ";  if  I 
am  convincing,  he  will  suggest  that  I  am  an  able  logician  ;  if  I 
show  warmth,  I  am  acting  the  indignant  innocent ;  if  I  am  calm, 
I  am  thereby  detected  as  a  smooth  hypocrite ;  if  I  clear  up  difficul- 
ties, I  am  too  plausible  and  perfect  to  be  true.  8.  The  more 
triumphant  are  my  statements,  the  more  certain  will  be  my  defeat. 

9.  So  will  it  be  if  my  accuser  succeeds  in  his  manoeuvre;  but  I^ 
do  not  for  an  instant  believe  that  he  will.  10.  AVhatever  jaog- 
ment  my  readers  may  eventually  form  of  me  from  these  pages,  I 
am  confident  that  they  will  .believe  me  in  what  I  shall  say  in  the 
course  of  them.A  11.  I  have  no  misgiving  at  all  that  they  will  be 
ungenerous  or  harsh  towards  a  man  who  has  been  so  long  before 
the  eyes  of.  the  ^orld ;  who  has  so  many  to  speak  of  him  from 
MT^^'^persohal  knowledge ;  Vhose  iiatural  impulse  it  has  ever  been  to 
speak  out';  who  has  ever  spoken  too  much  rather  than  too  little ; 
who  would  have  saved  himself  uiany  a  scrape,  if  he  had  been  wise 
enough  to  hold  his  tongue  ;  w^ho  has  ever  been  fair  to  the  doctrines 
and  arguments  of  his  opponents ;  who  has  never  slurred  over  facts 
and  reasonings  which  told  against  himself;  who  has  never  given 
his  name  or  authority  to  proofs  which  he  thought  unsound,  or  to 
testimony  which  he  did  not  think  at  least  plausible  ;  who  has  never 
shrunk  from  confessing  a  fault  when  he  felt  that  he  had  committed 
one ;  who  has  ever  consulted  for  others  more  than  for  himself ; 
who  has  given  up  much  that  he  loved  and  prized  and  could  have 
retained,  but  that  he  loved  honesty  better  than  name,  and  truth 
better  than  dear  friends. 

1.  Put  the  first  eight  words  in  a  more  emphatic  position. 

2.  Re-write  this  sentence  on  the  following  plan:  "It  is  by  .  .  . 
that  we  .  .  .  "  and  explain  the  change  in  emphasis. 

3.  Bring  the  first  four  words  close  to  the  predicate.  What  re- 
adjustment of  emphasis  results  ? 

4.  "There  is  a  story  of  .  .  .  and  that  .  .  .  '^  —  make  these  cor- 
responding parts  parallel  in  form.  Put  "by  mistake  'Mn  a  more  em- 
phatic position.     What  is  the  emphasis  of  the  when-clause  ? 

5.  Can  you  re-write  the  question-part  of  this  sentence  so  as  to 
make  "legitimate  warfare"  come  at  the  end  of  the  question?  How 
is  the  emphasis  thereby  changed  ? 


266  Composition- Rhetoric. 

6.  Emphasize  "  thus  "  and  "will  be.'' 

7.  What  is  the  relative  emphasis  of  the  if-clauses  as  compared 
with  that  of  the  principal  clauses?  Compare  sentence  11,  "who 
would  have  saved  himself,"  etc.     Emphasize  "  thereby." 

8.  Change  so  as  to  make  "  are  "  and  "  will  be  "  most  prominent. 

9.  Explain  the  emphasis  of  the  first  four  words  ;  of  the  if-clause. 
Make  "for  an  instant"  more  emphatic. 

10.  Give  "  they  will  believe  me  "  a  more  emphatic  position. 

11.  Give  "  so  long  "  a  still  more  emphatic  position.  Change  "  per- 
sonal knowledge"  to  *' knowledge  that  is  personal,"  and  note  the 
change  of  emphasis.  Explain  the  emphasis  of  "whose  natural  im- 
pulse," etc.  What  does  "at  least"  modify?  What  degree  of  em- 
phasis has  "  when  he  felt  that,"  etc.  ? 


d 


AJ<i^ 


EXERCISE  114. 


^^Q^e  of  the  translators  of  foreign  poetry,  who  belong  to  this 
perio37aiTre^ry  eminent.     [Bring  *' three "  close  to  its  verb.] 

Sir  John  Harington's  translation  of  the  Orlando  Furioso  ^^^ 

appeared;  in  1591,  when  the  author  was  in  his  thirtieth  year. 

[Emphasize  ^' first."]  ^ 

JJ,  xAC   It  is  a  work  of  great  ingenuity  and  talenA  though  it  does  not 

''  convey  all  the  glow  and  poetry  of  Ariosto!)    [Make  the  though- 

clause  less  emphatic] 
I        jg^  The  translation  of  Tasso's  great  epic,  by  Edward  Fairfax;,  was 
■^^^       first  published^jinder  the  title  of    Godfrey   of  Bulloigne,  or  the 
Recoverie  of  Jerusalem^  in  1600.     [Emphasize   "  under  the  title," 
etc.] 

This  is  a  work  of  true  genius,  full  of  beautiful,  rare,  and  effec- 
tive passages. /^^  [Emphasize  "beautiful,  rare,  and  effective."] 

CIt  is  throughout  executed  with  as  much  care  as  taste  and  spirit, 
although  by  ng^  means  a  perfectly  exact  or  servile  version  of  the 
Italian  original,  i^  [Emphasize  the  first  half  of  the  sentence.] 

Sir  Richard  Fanshawe  is  the  author  of  versions  of  Camoens's 
Lusiadj  of  the  Odes  of  Horace,  and  of  the  Spanish  dramatist 
Mendoza's  To  Love  for  Love's  Sake.  Some  passages  from  the  last- 
mentioned  work,rthe  ease  and  flowing  gaiety  of  which  have  never 
been  excelled  even  in  original  writing,  jnay  be  found'  in  Lamb's 
Specimens.  [Make  "  the  ease  —  writing  "  emphatic]  However,  his 
genius  was  sprightly  and  elegant  rather  than  lofty,  and  he  does 


0)jjjc 


■^^-'-'„,,\';^„^-^ 


jU^yyvA^.  /-'      In  What  Order  to  Say  It.  267 

not  succeed  so  well  in  translating  poetry  of  a  more  serious  style. 
[Make  "however"  less  emphatic.  Make  "he  does  not  succeed  so 
well "  more  emphatic] 


EXERCISE,  115. 

In  the  following  paragraphs,  insert  the  bracketed  expres- 
sions so  as  to  secure  clearness  and  force :  — 

Sometimes  the  progress  of  man  is  so  rapid  that  the  desert  re- 
appears behind  him.  -"  The  woods  stoop  to  give  him  a  passage,  and  vi 
spring  up  again  [when  he  has  passed]."  It  is  not  uncommon^^to 
meet  with  deserted  dwellings  in  the  midst  of  the  wilds  [in  cross- 
ing the  new  states  of  the  west].'.  The  traveller  frequently  dis- 
covers the  vestiges  of  a  log-house,  whick  bears  witness  to  the  power, 
and  no  less  to  the  inconstancy  of  man  [in  the  most  solitary  re- 
treats] .  In  these  abandoned  fields,  and  over  those  ruins  of  a  day, 
the  primeval  forest  soon  scattei-s  a  fresh  vegetation ;  the  beasts 
resume  the  haunts  which  were  once  their  own ;  and  nature  covers^ 
the  traces  of  man's  path,  [with  branches  and  with  flowers,  which 
obliterate  his  evanescent  track] . 
(r  .  I  remember  that  in  crossing  one  of  the  woodland  districts  which 
still  cover  the  state  of  New  York,  I  reached  the  shore  of  a  lake, 
which  was  embosomed  with  forests  coeval  wdth  the  world.  '  A 
small  island,,  whose  thick  foliage  concealed  its  banks,  rose  from 
the  centre  of  the  waters  [covered  with  woods].  N'o  object  attested 
the  presence  of  man  [upon  the  shores  of  the  lake],  except  a  column 
of  smoke  which  might  be  seen  on  the  horizon  hanging  from  the 
tops  of  the  trees  to  the  clouds,  and  seeming  to  hang  from  heaven 
rather  than  to  be  mounting  to  the  sky.  An  Indian  shallop  was 
hauled  up  on  the  sand,  which  tempted  me  to  visit  the  islet  which 
had  at  first  attracted  my  attention,  and  I  set  foot  upon  its  banks 
[in  a  few  minutes] .  The  whole  island  formed  one  of  those  deli- 
cious solitudes  of  the  New  World,  which  almost  lead  civilized  man 
to  regret  the  haunts  of  the  savage.  A  luxuriant  vegetation  bore 
witness  to  the  incomparable  fruitfulness  of  the  soil.  JThe  deep 
silence,  which  is  common  to  the  wilds  of  North  America,  was  only 
broken  by  the  hoarse  cooing  of  the  wood-pigeon  and  the  tapping 
of  the  woodpecker  upon  the  bark  of  trees.     I  was  far  from  sup- 


268  Composition-Rhetoric. 

posing  that  this  spot  had  ever  been  inhabited  [so  completely  did 
nature  seem  to  be  left  to  her  own  caprices] ;  bnt  I  thought  that 
I  discovered  some  traces  of  man  [v^^hen  I  reached  the  centre  of  the 
isle].  I  then  proceeded  to  examine  the  surrounding  objects  [with 
care],  and  I  soon  perceived  that  a  European  had  undoubtedly 
been  led  to  seek  a  refuge  [in  this  retreat].  Yet  what  changes  had 
taken  place  [in  the  scene  of  his  labors]  !  The  logs  which  he  had 
hastily  hewn  to  build  himself  a  shed  had  sprouted  afresh;  the 
very  props  were  intertwined  with  living  verdure,  and  his  cabin  was 
transformed  into  a  bower.  A  few  stones  were  to  be  seen  [in  the 
midst  of  these  shrubs],  blackened  with  fire  and  sprinkled  with  thin 
ashes ;  here  the  hearth  had  no  doubt  been,  and  the  chimney  had 
covered  it  with  rubbish  [in  falling].  I  stood  for  some  time  in 
silent  admiration  of  the  exuberance  of  nature  and  the  littleness 
of  man ;  and  when  I  was  obliged  to  leave  that  enchanting  solitude, 
I  exclaimed  with  melancholy,  "Are  ruins,  then,  already  here?" 


EXERCISE  116. 
Ee-write  your  last  essay,   scrutinizing  each  sentence  to 
see  that  all  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  are  in  the  best  order 
for  clearness.     Eead  it  aloud  to  see  whether  the  important 
words  in  each  sentence  hold  emphatic  positions. 


^     •  *L/«^  V   "^     . 


CHAPTER   VI. 

HO"W    MUCH    TO   SAY. 

LESSON   33. 
Scale  of  Treatment. 

If  we  should  hang  upon  the  wall,  side  by  side,  three  maps 
of  the  United  States,  a  very  large  map,  another  one-half 
the  size  of  the  first,  and  a  very  small  one,  we  should  notice 
a  rapid  decrease  in  the  number  of  things  appearing  on  the 
maps.  The  largest  map  would  find  room  for  an  accurate 
outline  of  the  coasts;  all  the  bays  would  be  shown;  the 
mountain  ranges,  both  large  and  small,  would  appear ;  the 
navigable  rivers  as  well  as  their  lesser  tributaries  would  be 
distinguishable ;  the  railroads,  state  and  even  county  lines 
could  be  made  out ;  and  all  of  the  cities  and  towns  of  more 
than  5000  inhabitants  would  probably  be  marked  on  the 
map  and  their  names  printed. 

In  the  half -size  map  many  of  these  details  would,  of  neces- 
sity, be  left  out.  The  coast-line  would  show  indentations 
less  deep,  and  all  of  the  indentations  below  a  certain  depth 
would  have  disappeared.  Only  the  large  mountain  ranges 
and  rivers,  and  only  a  few  of  the  through  lines  of  railways, 
would  be  shown.  State  lines  would  be  distinguishable,  but 
county  lines  could  not  be  seen,  and  only  towns  of  perhaps 
100,000  and  more  inhabitants  would  be  marked  on  the  map 
and  their  names  printed. 

269 


270  Composition-Ithetoric, 

The  smallest  map  would  find  room  for  only  the  few  most 
striking  and  important  features,  —  the  general  direction  of 
the  coast-outline,  the  two  largest  mountain  ranges,  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  St.  Lawrence  rivers,  and  perhaps  the  live 
largest  cities.  Probably  there  would  not  be  shown,  in  such 
a  small  map,  the  state  lines,  the  railways,  or  any  of  the 
lesser  details  that  appear  on  the  other  maps. 

It  is  evident  that  a  good  map-maker  proceeds  on  a  certain 
system  of  selection  and  omission.  The  very  largest  map 
cannot  show  all  of  the  features  of  the  country  in  detail. 
So  the  map-maker  adopts  a  certain  scale  of  treatment.  If 
he  decides  upon  a  scale  of  fifty  miles  to  the  inch,  the  physi- 
cal features  of  the  country  will  appear  in  larger  proportions 
than  if  he  decides  on  a  scale  of  one  hundred  miles  to  the 
inch.  Moreover,  a  greater  number  of  the  physical  features 
will  appear  on  the  first  scale  than  on  the  second.  In  the 
latter  many  of  the  lesser  features  would  be  so  reduced 
in  size,  by  the  scale  adopted,  as  to  make  it  impossible  to 
show  them  at  all.  In  all  his  work  on  the  same  map  the 
maker  applies  the  same  scale. 

Considerations  very  like  those  of  the  maker  of  a  map 
apply  to  good  writing.  Compare  a  school  history  of  the 
United  States  with  a  larger  history  of  the  United  States. 
The  main  topics  treated  are  likely  to  be  the  same  in  both, 
but  in  the  larger  history  the  main  topics  are  treated  with 
greater  fulness ;  sub-topics  which  are  dismissed  with  very 
brief  mention  in  the  school  history  are  worked  out  in  detail 
in  the  larger  history,  and  a  place  is  found  for  many  minor 
topics  which  are  not  even  mentioned  in  the  school  history. 
For  instance,  both  will  have  for  one  topic,  the  causes  of  the 
Revolution,  and  both  will  state  the  causes ;  but  the  school 
history  will  stop  there,  whereas  the  larger  history  will 
explain  at  great  length  the  operation  of  each  of  the  causes, 
will  show  how  one  cause  worked  with  greater  force  in  somie 
colonies  than  in  others  or  influenced  a  certain  class  of  the 


How  Much  to  Say.  271 

people  more  than  another  class.  The  school  history  is  not 
likely  to  mention  the  fear  of  an  established  church  as  one 
of  the  causes,  since  this  was  a  subordinate  cause,  but  the 
larger  history  will  treat  of  this  cause,  and  while  making  the 
reader  see  that  it  was  a  subordinate  cause,  will  show  to 
what  extent  and  where  it  operated.  These  differences  in 
fulness  of  treatment  arise  because  the  two  histories  are 
written  on  different  scales.  The  same  relationship  among 
topics  is  preserved  in  both,  the  same  discrimination  of  more 
important  and  less  important  topics  is  made  in  both,  but 
one  is  written  on  a  large  scale  and  the  other  on  a  small  scale. 
To  illustrate  still  further,  notice  the  following  paragraph 
on  the  subject, 

Washington's  Contribution  to  Nationality. 

The  first  of  the  forces  which  may  be  regarded  as  having  largely 
contributed  to  the  building  up  of  a  nationality  was  the  personality 
of  George  Washington.  He  was  to  the  plastic  elements  of  the 
country,  in  the  outset  to  that  great  political  experiment,  more  than 
all  other  statesmen  put  together.  In  securing  comparative  peace 
between  the  angry  factions  of  that  day ;  in  holding  the  nation,  as 
no  other  man  could  have  done,  out  of  the  giant  struggle  between 
France  and  England;  in  impressing  respect  for  law,  for  public 
credit,  and  for  the  forms  of  the  new  government,  and  in  silently, 
but  powerfully  and  grandly,  teaching  the  lesson  of  devotion  to 
union,  he  not  only  gave  time  for  a  fortunate  trial  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, but  he  contributed  a  positive  force  which  we  cannot  over- 
estimate toward  its  orderly  and  energetic  operation  during  the 
first  critical  years. 

This  single  paragraph  of  only  one  hundred  and  forty 
words  treats  the  subject  successfully  on  a  small  scale.  It 
is  clear,  it  mentions  the  important  facts,  and  it  gives  a  good 
idea  of  their  relative  importance.  But  the  scale  of  treat- 
ment is  so  small  that  there  is  no  room  for  going  into  expla- 
nations and  details.  The  paragraph  might  be  analyzed 
thus ;  — 


272  Composition-Rhetoric. 

Washington's  Contribution  to  Nationality 

I.  His  personality  was  preeminent, 

A .  In  moulding  the  plastic  elements  of  the  country. 

B.  Over  the  other  statesmen  of  the  time. 

II.  His  statesmanship  encouraged  the  spirit  of  nationality, 

A.  By  securing  peace  between  angry  factions. 

B.  By  adopting  a  foreign  policy  of  neutrality. 

C.  By  impressing  respect  for  law,  public  credit,  and  the 

forms  of  the  new  government. 

D.  By  teaching  the  lesson  of  devotion  to  the  Union. 

Now  if  the  subject  of  this  paragraph  were  treated  on  a 
larger  scale,  the  very  same  facts  would  be  given,  necessarily, 
for  they  are  the  essential  facts  in  the  case ;  but  more  would 
be  given  about  each  fact.  We  should  be  told,  for  instance, 
under  the  first  heading,  what  were  the  "plastic  elements" 
which  Washington  was  especially  capable  of  moulding ;  the 
doubt  might  arise  of  his  preeminence  over  at  least  two  of 
the  other  statesmen  of  the  time,  and  their  influence  over 
other  statesmen  would  have  to  be  compared  with  his. 

Under  the  second  heading,  the  "  angry  factions  "  would 
be  designated;  something  would  doubtless  be  said  of  the 
troubles  in  the  Cabinet,  and  of  the  growth  of  an  English 
faction  and  a  French  faction  among  the  people,  and  we 
should  be  shown  how  Washington  dealt  with  these  factions 
so  as  to  give  the  spirit  of  nationality  a  chance  to  grow.  In 
connection  with  the  policy  of  neutrality,  the  question  would 
doubtless  be  asked,  what  would  have  happened  if  Washing- 
ton had  permitted  this  country  to  take  part  in  the  giant 
struggle  between  England  and  France  ? 

And  here  another  related  topic,  for  which  the  single- 
paragraph  treatment  of  the  subject  finds  no  place,  would 
be  introduced  and  discussed  fully,  —  Washington's  manage- 
ment of  the  Jay  Treaty  troubles  and  his  reasons  for  signing 
it,  defective  as  it  was ;  his  chief  reasons  being,  to  keep  the 


How  Much  to  Say.  273 

country  out  of  war,  to  discourage  divisions  among  the 
people,  and  to  make  them  feel  that  this  country  had  national 
interests  of  its  own. 

We  should  be  told,  too,  how  Washington  impressed  the 
people  with  respect  for  the  forms  of  the  new  government, 
what  these  forms  were,  what  were  their  objects,  and  how 
they  tended  to  make  the  people  feel  the  presence  of  a  na- 
tional government  in  which  they  could  take  a  common  pride. 

Much  .would  be  said  on  the  topic,  how  he  impressed  re- 
spect for  law  and  public  credit.  His  Indian  policy  would 
be  shown  to  have  had  a  nationalizing  influence,  because  it 
was  carried  out  in  defence  of  settlements  in  which  no  one 
state  had  any  special  interest.  It  made  the  people  feel  that 
there  was  a  national  interest  in  defence  of  which  all  must 
cooperate,  and  it  turned  their  eyes  to  the  great  west  as  the 
place  for  unbounded  national  development  in  the  future. 

Hamilton's  measures,  as  sanctioned  by  Washington,  would 
be  treated  as  nationalizing  measures  establishing  the  credit 
of  the  new  government,  giving  it  respect  at  home  and  abroad. 
The  immense  importance  of  the  bill  for  assuming  the  debts 
of  the  states,  the  superior  position  which  this  bill  gave  to 
the  new  government  over  the  state  governments,  would  be 
dwelt  on,  and  the  National  Bank  measure,  which  introduced 
the  nationalizing  doctrine  of  implied  powers,  thereby  greatly 
increasing  the  functions  of  the  government,  would  be  given 
the  important  treatment  it  deserves. 

The  Whiskey  Eebellion  would  probably  be  selected  as 
the  best  illustration  of  the  fact  that  Washington,  when 
necessary,  did  not  hesitate  to  force  obedience  to  the  laws  of 
the  new  government  and  to  compel  law-breakers  to  respect 
law,  thereby  demonstrating  the  government's  power  and 
making  all  the  people  feel  the  presence  of  an  effective 
central  government.  In  conclusion  it  would  be  shown  that 
in  all  his  acts  he  taught,  by  the  force  of  his  conspicuous 
example,  devotion  to  the  Union. 


274  Composition- Rhetoric, 

The  first  outline,  filled  in  for  more  thorough  treatment  of 
the  subject  on  a  larger  scale,  would  then  read  about  as 
follows :  — 

Washington's  Contribution  to  Nationality. 

I.  His  personality  was  preeminent, 

A .  In  moulding  the  plastic  elements  of  the  country,  which  were, 

1.  The  survivors  of  his  army,  who  were 

a.  Attached  to  him  by  personal  ties,  and 
h.  Influential  in  their  respective  localities. 

2.  The  commercial  and  creditor  classes,  who 

a.  Believed  in  him  as  a  safe  man,  and 
h.  Brought  to  his  aid  the  power  of  money. 

B.  Over  the  other  statesmen  of  the  time. 

1.  Over  Hamilton,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 

a.  Whose  influence  was  limited  somewhat  by  the 
fear  that  he  was  a  "monarchist." 

h.  Whose  disagreements  with  Jefferson  lost  him  in- 
fluence with  large  numbers. 

2.  Over  Jefferson,  the  Secretary  of  State, 

a.  Whose  quarrel  with  Hamilton  showed  both  of 
them  to  be  party  men,  while  Washington  still 
kept  himself  above  party  and  faction. 

II.  His  statesmanship  encouraged  the  spirit  of  nationality. 

A .  By  keeping  comparative  peace  between  the  angry  politi- 

cal factions  of  the  day. 

1.  Between  warring  elements  in  his  Cabinet. 

a.  Hamilton  and  Jefferson. 

2.  Between  the  English  party  and  the  French  party. 

a.  The  story  of  Genet. 

B.  By  his  foreign  policy  of  neutrality. 

1.  Keeping  the  nation  out  of  the  struggle  between  Eng- 
land and  France. 
a.  Probable  effects  upon  nationality  if  the  United 
States  had  entered  the  struggle. 

(1)  War  with  England  or  France,  or  both. 

(2)  Permanent  divisions  at  home. 

(3)  Failure  of  the  Republic. 


How  Much  to  Say.  275 

2.  Favoring  the  adoption  of  Jay's  Treaty. 
a.  In  spite  of  its  defects. 

(1)  On  the  subject  of  right  of  search. 

{a)  The  facts  in  the  case. 

(2)  On  the  subject  of  impressment. 

(a)  The  facts  in  the  case. 
h.  In  spite  of  the  subsequent  English  "provisional 
order,"   rendering   its    ratification   almost  im- 
possible. 

(1)  What  the  "provisional  order"  was. 

(2)  Kandolph's  guilt. 

(3)  Fauchet's  intrigue. 

c.   In  spite  of  its  immense  unpopularity. 

C.  In  impressing  the  people  in  his  domestic  policy  with  re- 

spect for  the  government  of  the  United  States. 

1.  Eespect  for  the  forms  of  the  new  government. 

a.  Forms  to  uphold  its  dignity. 

(1)  Official  etiquette. 

(2)  Treatment  of  foreign  ambassadors. 

6.  Forms  to  secure  time  for  the  consideration  and 
transaction  of  public  business  deliberately. 

(1)  Communication    with    the    Senate    and 

House   in  writing. 

(2)  Sensible  reserve  of  the  President. 

2.  Respect  for  public  credit  and  for  law. 

a.  Vigorous  Indian  policy  on  behalf  of  outlying  settle- 
ments as  a  scarcely  recognized  part  of  the  nation. 

h.  Support  of  Hamilton's  financial  measures  as  na- 
tionalizing measures. 

(1)  To  pay  the  foreign  debt. 

(2)  To  pay  the  domestic  debt. 

(3)  To  assume  the  state  debts. 

(4)  To  establish  a  National  Bank. 

{a)  Carrying  with  it  the  President's 
sanction    of    the    nationalizing 
doctrine  of  implied  powers. 
c.   He  put   down  the  Whiskey   Rebellion,   thereby 
demonstrating  the  power  of  the  new  govern- 
ment to  enforce  the  laws,  and,  if  necessary,  to 
compel  respect  for  law. 

D.  In  devotion  to  the  Union. 


A 


276  Composition- Rhetoric, 

Treated  on  this  larger  scale,  the  subject  would  demand 
a  dozen  or  fifteen  paragraphs  and  perhaps  at  least  eighteen 
hundred  words,  instead  of  the  single  paragraph  of  one 
hundred  and  forty  words.  But  the  reader  would  see, 
no  matter  how  extensive  the  scale  of  treatment,  that  the 
principal  topics  are  the  same  in  the  larger  as  in  the  smaller 
treatment. 

What  scale  of  treatment  to  adopt  depends  (1)  on  tliesub- 
ject  itself,  (2)  on  the  knowledge  possessed  by  the  persons 
for  whose  benefit  thejwriting  is  done,  (3)  ontJue^iurposejQf- 
the  writer.  Some  subjects  will  not  admit  of  an  extended 
scale  of  treatment;  they  are  so  small  in  themselves  that 
but  little  can  be  said  on  them  without  needless  repetitions. 
The  persons  addressed  may  have  a  superficial  knowledge  or  It 
a  thorough  knoAvledge  of  the  subject.  If  the  former,  there  ' 
is  opportunity  for  a  larger  scale  of  treatment ;  if  the  latter, 
much  may  be  taken  for  granted,  and  explanation  and  details 
omitted.  The  single-paragraph  treatment  given  to  the  sub- 
ject analyzed  above,  was  addressed  to  those  who  were  sup- 
posed to  know  quite  thoroughly  the  facts  and  details  of 
Washington's  administration;  the  writer  was  addressing 
people  well-informed  in  history ;  so  he  needed  only  to  recall 
the  main  facts  and  to  bring  out  a  certain  meaning  which  he 
thought  those  facts  possessed,  —  to  treat  Washington's  policy 
in  relation  to  the  idea  of  nationality.  With  a  different 
audience  in  mind  he  would  doubtless  have  written  with 
greater  fulness.  His  purpose  was  accomplished  by  the 
mere  statement  of  his  theory  as  to  the  meaning  and  intent 
of  Washington's  policy.  He  relied  upon  the  reasonableness 
of  his  theory  to  ensure  its  acceptance.  If  his  purpose  had 
been  to  convince  those  who  held  strenuously  to  another 
theory,  a  greater  show  of  reasons  would  have  been  demanded 
of  him. 

The  writer  is  compelled  to  consider  scale  of  treatment,  no 
matter  what  he  is  writing  about.     An  adventure  may  be 


How  Much  to  Say,  277 

told  in  a  hundred  words  or  in  a  thousand  words ;  in  both 
cases  the  two  or  three  principal  points  are  the  same.  A 
description  of  any  object  or  scene  may  be  written  at  greater 
or  less  length,  but  (the  purpose  remaining  the  same)  the 
main  features  mentioned  will  be  the  same.  So  with  essays 
and  arguments. 

The  length  of  a  paragraph  or  an  essay  depends  upon  the  scale  of 
treatment  adopted ;  the  scale  of  treatment,  upon  the  subject  itself, 
the  knowledge  possessed  by  persons  addressed,  and  the  purpose  of 
[the  writer.  In  the  same  production,  the  same  scale  of  treatment 
should  be  preserved  throughout. 


.^M^i 


EXERCISE  117. 

What  scale  of  treatment  is  suggested  by  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing subjects,  considering  only  the  character  of  each  sub- 
ject? How  deep  would  it  pay  to  go  in  writing  on  each? 
What  topics  would  you  mention  under  each  ?  About  what 
length  would  the  writing  attain  in  each  case  ? 

1.  How  a  field  of  corn  appears  in  July.  2.  The  Mexican 
War.  3.  A  street  fight.  4.  Why  women  are  entitled  to 
vote  on  school  matters.  5.  Causes  of  floods.  6.  The  dif- 
ficulties of  school  life.  7.  Superstitions  about  picking  up 
pins.  8.  The  Chicago  Pire.  9.  The  advantages  of  Feudal? 
ism.     10.    A  runaway  horse.  '  y  / 

■^  EXERCISE  118.       ^ 

Taking  as  a  criterion  your  own  knowledge  of  each  of  the 
following  subjects,  what  scale  of  treatment  would  you  adopt 
if  asked  to  write  on  each  of  them  ?  What  topics  would  you 
mention  under  each  ? 

1.  The  cause  of  eclipses.  2.  Eef orms  advocated  in  recent 
years.  3.  How  a  president  is  elected.  4.  Tree-planting. 
5.  Christian  Endeavor  Societies  and  their  purposes.     6.  The 


278  Composition-Rhetoric, 

antislavery  movement.  7.  Evils  of  strikes.  8.  Athletics 
for  girls.  9.  Advantages  of  bicycle  riding.  10.  The  early 
history  of  this  State.  11.  The  future  of  the  horse. 
12.   Popular  songs. 

-'I 


EXERCISE  119. 


lOL^ 


Account  for  the  scale  of  treatment  adopted  in  the  follow- 
ing, by  the  writer's  evident  purpose.  Is  the  treatment  suf- 
ficiently full  in  view  of  your  present  knowledge  ?  Mark 
any  points  that  you  would  wish  to  see  treated  with  greater 
fulness  of  explanation  and  detail. 

There  is  absolutely  nothing  extreme  or  unique  about  the  world 
we  live  on.  It  has  more  heat  from  the  sun  than  some  planets  and 
less  than  others.  It  has  an  atmosphere,  and  several  of  them  have 
atmospheres.  It  is  intermediate  in  size.  Hence  there  does  not 
seem  to  be  anything  to  show  that  the  earth  is  exceptional  and  more 
fitted  for  the  abode  of  life  than  other  planets. 

This  is  an  old  argument,  and  in  general  a  good  one,  but  nowa- 
days there  are  several  others  to  support  the  opinion  that  forms  of 
life  should  exist  on  other  planets.  For  instance,  astronomers  have 
found  out  that  the  elementary  bodies  in  the  earth  are  substantially 
the  same  as  the  elementary  bodies  in  the  sun,  and  also  that  the 
materials  from  which  such  planets  as  Venus  and  Mars  have  been 
built  are  actually  the  same  kind  of  materials  as  those  that  make 
up  the  earth.  Hydrogen,  carbon,  sodium,  iron,  in  fact  practically 
all  the  components  necessary  for  physical  life,  exist  as  abundantly 
upon  some  of  the  other  planets  as  upon  the  earth.  One  weak  link 
in  the  chain  is  the  apparent  lack  of  oxygen  in  the  other  planets, 
but  this  is  merely  a  lack  of  our  ability  to  prove  the  presence  of 
oxygen. 

It  must  have  snowed  most  wonderfuUy  to  have  made  thM  dep^ 
of  covering  in  about  eight  hours.  For  one  of  Master  Stickles's 
men,  who  had  been  out  all  the  night,  said  that  no  snow  began  to 
fall  until  nearly  midnight.  And  here  it  was,  blocking  up  the  doors, 
stopping  the  ways  and  the  watercourses,  and  making  it  very  much 
worse  to  walk  than  in  a  saw-pit  newly  used.     However,  we  trudged 


How  Much  to  Say,  279 

along  in  a  line ;  I  first,  and  the  other  men  after  me  ;  trying  to  keep 
my  track,  but  finding  legs  and  strength  not  up  to  it.  Most  of  all, 
John  Fry  was  groaning ;  certain  that  his  time  was  come,  and  send- 
ing messages  to  his  wife,  and  blessings  to  his  children.  For  all 
this  time  it  was  snowing  harder  than  it  ever  had  snowed  before, 
so  far  as  a  man  might  guess  at  it ;  and  the  leaden  depth  of  the 
sky  came  down,  like  a  mine  turned  upside  down  on  us.  Not  that 
the  ilakes  were  so  very  large ;  for  I  have  seen  much  larger  flakes 
in  a  shower  of  March,  while  sowing  peas;  but  that  there  was  no 
room  between  them,  neither  any  relaxing,  nor  any  change  of  di- 
rection. 

Watch,  like  a  good  and  faithful  dog,  followed  us  very  cheerfully, 
leaping  out  of  the  depth,  which  took  him  over  his  back  and  ears 
already,  even  in  the  level  places ;  while  in  the  drifts  he  might  have 
sunk  to  any  distance  out  of  sight,  and  never  found  his  way  up 
again.  However,  we  helped  him  now  and  tlien,  especially  through 
the  gaps  and  gateways ;  and  so,  after  a  deal  of  floundering,  some 
laughter,  and  a  little  swearing,  we  came  all  safe  to  the  lower 
meadow,  where  most  of  our  flock  was  huddled. 

But  behold,  there  was  no  flock  at  all !  N'one,  I  mean,  to  be  seen 
anywhere;  only  at  one  corner  of  the  field,  by  the  eastern  end, 
where  the  snow  drove  in,  a  great  white  billow,  as  high  as  a  barn 
and  as  broad  as  a  house.  This  great  drift  was  rolling  and  curling 
beneath  the  violent  blast,  tufting  and  combing  with  rustling  swirls, 
and  carved  (as  in  patterns  of  cornice)  where  the  grooving  chisel  of 
the  wind  swept  round.  Ever  and  again  the  tempest  snatched  lit- 
tle whiffs  from  the  channelled  edges,  twirled  them  round,  and  made 
them  dance  over  the  chine  of  the  monster  pile,  then  let  them  lie 
like  herring-bones,  or  the  seams  of  sand  where  the  tide  has  been. 
And  all  the  while  from  the  smothering  sky,  more  and  more  fiercely 
at  every  blast,  came  the  pelting,  pitiless  arrows,  winged  with 
murky  white  and  pointed  with  the  barbs  of  frost. 

The  actual  practice  of  fraud,  even  when  you  discover  it,  must 
give  you  interesting  question,  unless  you  are  cock-sure  of  your  soci- 
ology. I  was  once  met  by  a  little  girl  on  a  cross-street  in  a  respect- 
able quarter  of  the  town,  who  burst  into  tears  at  sight  of  me,  and 
asked  for  money  to  buy  her  sick  mother  bread.  The  very  next 
day  I  was  passing  through  the  same  street,  and  I  saw  the  same 


280  Composition- Rhetoric, 

little  girl  burst  into  tears  at  sight  of  a  benevolent-looking  lady, 
whom  undoubtedly  she  asked  for  money  for  the  same  good  object. 
The  benevolent-looking  lady  gave  her  nothing,  and  she  tried  her 
woes  upon  several  other  people,  none  of  whom  gave  her  anything. 
I  was  forced  to  doubt  whether,  upon  the  whole,  her  game  was 
worth  the  candle,  or  whether  she  was  really  making  a  provision 
for  her  declining  years  by  this  means.  To  be  sure,  her  time  was 
not  worth  much,  and  she  could  hardly  have  got  any  other  work, 
she  was  so  young ;  but  it  seemed  hardly  a  paying  industry.  By 
any  careful  calculation,  I  do  not  believe  she  would  have  been  found 
to  have  amassed  more  than  ten  or  fifteen  cents  a  day ;  and  perhaps 
she  really  had  a  sick  mother  at  home.  Many  persons  are  obliged 
to  force  their  emotions  for  money,  whom  we  should  not  account 
wholly  undeserving ;  yet  I  suppose  a  really  good  citizen  who  found 
this  little  girl  trying  to  cultivate  the  sympathies  of  charitable  peo- 
ple by  that  system  of  irrigation,  would  have  had  her  suppressed  as 
an  impostor. 

In  a  way  she  was  an  impostor,  though  her  sick  mother  may  have 
been  starving,  as  she  said.  It  is  a  nice  question.  Shall  we  always 
give  to  him  that  asketh?  Or  shall  we  give  to  him  that  asketh  only 
when  we  know  that  he  has  come  by  his  destitution  honestly  ?  In 
other  words,  what  is  a  deserving  case  of  charity  —  or,  rather,  what 
is  not?  Is  a  starving  or  freezing  person  to  be  denied  because  he 
or  she  is  drunken  or  vicious  ?  What  is  desert  in  the  poor?  What 
is  desert  in  the  rich,  I  suppose  the  reader  would  answer.  If  this 
is  so,  and  if  we  ought  not  to  succor  an  undeserving  poor  person, 
then  we  ought  not  to  succor  an  undeserving  rich  person.  It  will 
be  said  that  a  rich  person,  however  undeserving,  will  never  be  in 
need  of  our  succor,  but  this  is  not  so  clear.  If  we  saw  a  rich  per- 
son fall  in  a  fit  before  the  horses  of  a  Fifth  Avenue  omnibus,  ought 
not  we  to  run  and  lift  him  up^  although  w^e  knew  him  to  be  a  man 
whose  life  was  stained  by  every  vice  and  excess,  and  cruel,  wanton, 
idle,  luxurious  ?  I  know  that  I  am  imagining  a  quite  impossible 
rich  person ;  but  once  imagined,  ought  not  we  to  save  him  all  the 
same  as  if  he  were  deserving?  I  do  not  believe.the  most  virtuous 
person  will  say  we  ought  not ;  and  ought  not  we,  then,  to  rescue 
the  most  worthless  tramp  fallen  under  the  wheels  of  the  Jugger- 
naut of  want  ?    Is  charity  the  reward  of  merit  ? 


How  Much  to  S(mj,  281 


EXERCISE  120. 

On  one  of  the  following  subjects,  prepare  a  single  paragraph 
of  less  than  two  hundred  words:  — 

1.  Probabilities  that  other  planets  are  inhabited. 

2.  The  nationalizing  influence  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase. 

3.  Should  we  bestow  charity  only  on  the  deserving  ? 

4.  The  motives  that  led  to  the  declaration  of  war  with 

Mexico. 

5.  A  description  of  the  court-house. 

6.  A  narrative  of  a  personal  experience. 

7.  The  story  of  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden. 

8.  The  story  of  Abraham  Lincoln's  early  life. 

9.  A  description  of  the  interior  of  a  factory. 
10.  The  process  of  glass-making. 

EXERCISE  121. 

Make  an  outline  analysis  of  the  paragraph  written  for 
the  preceding  exercise ;  fill  in  sub-topics  suggested  by  ques- 
tioning each  of  the  headings  of  your  outline  analysis  (why  ? 
Avhen  ?  where  ?  who  ?  what  were  the  circumstances  ?  etc.), 
and  write  again  on  a  larger  scale,  preserving  the  same  order 
and  relative  importance  of  main  topics  as  before. 

J.ESSON  34.    ^'/VU^-^'^  . 

Proportion  of  Parts. 

Whether  the  scale  on  which  a  subject  is  treated  be  large 
or  small,  a  good  writer  will  show,  by  what  he  says  on  the 
different  topics  and  sub-topics,  which  of  them  he  considers 
more  important,  and  which  less.  The  main  topics  are  not 
all  of  the  same  importance  even  though  they  occupy  the 
same  rank  in  the  outline ;  and  sub-topics  of  the  same  rank 
also  vary  in  importance.  If  the  long  analysis  given  in  the 
preceding  lesson  should  be  developed  into  an  essay,  three 


282  Composition-Rhetoric, 

courses  would  be  open  to  the  writer  for  showing  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  the  topics  marked  respectively  I.  A, 
I.  B,  II.  A,  II.  B,  II.  C,  II.  D,  with  all  the  sub-topics  in- 
cluded under  each. 

First,  the  writer  might  give  but  one  paragraph  to  each  of 
these  topics.  In  this  case,  the  essay  would  be  composed 
of  six  paragraphs,  and  their  relative  importance  would  be 
shown  by  their  relative  length,  the  most  important  being 
the  longest.  II.  C  would  be  the  longest  paragraph  of  the 
six  because  it  contains  (under  the  sub-topic  marked  2)  the 
points  that  are  most  essential  to  the  subject.  II.  B  would 
be  almost  as  long  because  it  deals  with  Washington's  for- 
eign policy,  which  was  so  important  in  cultivating  the  spirit 
of  nationality,  almost  as  important,  in  fact,  as  the  financial 
measures  of  Hamilton.  II.  A  would  be  third  in  importance 
and  length,  but  would  be  considerably  shorter  than  II.  B 
and  II.  C.  I.  A  and  I.  B  would  be  still  shorter,  gauged  by 
their  importance.  II.  D,  standing  as  a  conclusion,  would 
not  require  much  space,  for  it  would  inherit  the  accumu- 
lated force  of  the  preceding  topics. 

A  second  course,  open  to  the  writer,  would  be  to  make  a 
separate  paragraph  for  every  sub-topic,  I.  ^  1,  1.  A2,  l.Bl, 
I.  B  2,  etc.  These  would  show  their  relative  importance  by 
their  relative  length,  but  each  would  be  very  short  as  com- 
pared with  any  one  of  the  six  paragraphs  before  mentioned. 

The  disadvantage  of  the  first  plan  would  be  the  excessive 
length  of  paragraphs  II.  C  and  II.  B ;  the  disadvantage  of 
the  second  plan  would  be  the  large  number  of  very  short 
paragraphs.  To  obviate  both  of  these  disadvantages,  a 
good  writer  follows  a  third  course.  He  throws  together 
into  one  paragraph  two  or  three  less  important  sub-topics 
which  fall  under  the  same  main  topic,  while  to  an  impor- 
tant sub-topic  he  gives  a  whole  paragraph.  Thus  the  group- 
ing into  paragraphs  of  the  theme  under  consideration  would 
perhaps  be :  — 


How  Much  to  Say. 


283 


Number.          Amount  included 

Number 

Amount  included. 

1         I.  ^  1,  2. 

9 

11.  (71  a  (1),  (2),  5(1),  (2) 

2        1.51,2. 

10 

11.  02  a. 

3      II.  J.  1  a. 

11 

II.  02  6(1),  (2). 

4      II.  ^2  a. 

12 

II.  02  6(3). 

5      11.  B 1. 

13 

11.  02  6  (4) (a). 

6      II.  Bla(l), 

(2), 

(3). 

14 

II.  0  c. 

7      II.  52  a. 

15 

II.  D. 

8      II.  52  6,  c. 

Such  grouping  avoids  extremely  long  and  extremely  short 
paragraphs.  The  reader  at  once  sees  that,  when  a  whole 
paragraph  is  devoted  to  one  sub-topic,  that  sub-topic  is  of 
as  much  importance  as  two  or  three  others  which  are  united 
in  one  paragraph,  so  that  the  number  of  sub-topics  brought 
into  one  paragraph  is  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  importance  of 
each.  But  grouping  alone  would  not  be  relied  on.  The 
writer  would  have  more  to  say  on  a  sub-topic  the  more 
important  it  appeared  to  him,  and  so  the  length  of  his 
paragraphs,  as  well  as  their  grouping,  would  be  an  index  of 
their  relative  importance.  Paragraphs  12,  13,  and  14,  in 
the  schedule  above,  would  undoubtedly  be  longer  than  any 
of  the  others ;  and  paragraphs  6  and  9,  notwithstanding  the 
greater  number  of  sub-topics  in  each  of  them,  would  not  be 
so  long  as  paragraph  10.  When  the  scale  of  treatment  is 
large,  this  third  plan  of  indicating  relative  importance, 
both  by  length  of  paragraphs  and  by  grouping  of  sub- 
topics, is  the  best  to  adopt. 

In  a  single  paragraph  standing  by  itself,  the  relative 
importance  of  the  various  parts  is  shown  by  the  amount  of 
space  devoted  to  each.  Thus,  in  the  following,  the  first 
part,  which  states  the  whole  thought  in  general  terms,  and 
brings  it  down  to  a  particular  question  at  the  close  of  sen- 
tence 4,  is  the  most  important  compared  with  any  one  of 
the  three  following  sub-topics,  and  occupies  about  one-third 
of  the  whole  space ;  sentence  5  introduces  the  three  sub- 
topics of  the  second  part  beginning  respectively  "first/' 


284  Oomposition'Rhetoric. 

"  secondly,"  and  "  but,  thirdly,''  all  of  which  are  of  abont 
the  same  length  and  importance.  The  last  sentence  stands 
as  a  conclusion. 

1.  It  is  well  known  that  many  men  and  most  women  who  would 
shrink  from  the  practice  of  divinity  or  law,  or  from  that  of  medi- 
cine if  they  were  paid  for  it,  love  to  offer  advice  and  even  physic 
unasked  and  free.  2.  What  one  ought  to  wear  in  the  New  Eng- 
land climate  is  a  puzzle ;  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  most  men,  by 
the  time  they  are  thirty-five,  have  found  out  each  what  he  ought 
to  wear.  3.  It  seems  to  me  that  many  of  my  neighbors  wrap  up 
too  heavily,  and  make  themselves  tender  by  it;  at  le^st,  that  I  am 
better  with  no  "  great-coat,"  as  people  used  to  say  when  I  was  a 
boy,  a  large  part  of  the  colder  weather.  4.  But  when  I  appear 
dressed  k  la  Vice-President  Hamlin,  I  am  constantly  assailed  with 
this  remark:  "Don/t__you_ think  it  is  imprudent  to  go  without  an 
overcoat?"  5.  Now,  I  respectfully  ask,  what  does  this  phrase 
mean,  and  what  is  the  object  of  asking  it  ?  6.  J.ir,stj  if  a  man  has 
thought  about  his  outer  garments  at  all,  must  he  not  think  his  course 
is  prudeiit  ?  Are  imprudence  and  thought  compatible  ?  Does  not 
the  question  mean,  "Don't  you  think  you're  thoughtless?"  7.  The 
querist  means,  *'  I  think  you  are  imprudent  "  ;  but  wishing  to  make 
his  interference  in  another  man's  business  polite,  —  which  he  can- 
not, —  he  puts  it  as  above,  and  makes  an  absurdity  of  it.  8.  Sec- 
ondlx,  is  it  likely  that  an  adult  male,  often  twice  the  age  of  his 
adviser,  will  be  suddenly  roused  into  prudence  by  this  volunteered 
advice  ?  9.  Has  he  not  probably  been  guilty  of  this  imprudence, 
if  it  be  one,  a  score  of  times,  and  run  the  gauntlet  of  a  score  of 
older  and  nearer  acquaintances  ?  10.  How  would  the  querist  take 
similar  advice?  11.  Most  of  my  amateur  doctors  are  consumers 
of  tobacco ;  I  am  just  as  certain  they  are  risking  their  health  by 
cigars  as  they  are  that  I  am  risking  mine  by  exposure.  12.  Sup- 
pose I  reply,  " Don't  you  think  you  smoke  too  much?  "  they  would 
scoff  at  the  advice  and  not  dream  of  altering  their  conduct.  13.  JBut, 
Jhirdly^^when  they  give  me  this  counsel,  I  am  generally  about  eight 
miles  from  home.  14.  What  do  they  expect  me  to  do?  15.  Go 
into  the  first  ready-made  clothier's  and  buy  a  garment  in  which  I 
should  look  like  a  hall  thief ;  or  go  to  a  custom  tailor's  and  have 
one  made  "while  you  wait";  or  break  off  whatever  has  brought 


Eow  Much  to  Say,  285 

me  away  from  home,  and  hasten  thither,  to  don  the  clothing,  by 
their  advice,  which  my  own  sense  told  me  was  needless?     16.  I 
invite  subscriptions  to  a  Henry  Wadsworth,  Jr.,  Club,  of  whicTT    , 
two  mottoes  are,  "Look  in  and  not  out,"'  and  "Mind  your  own  V'vV^ 
business." 

In  the  following,  the  cat-bird  as  a  riyal  to  the  mocking- 
bird is  disposed  of  in  a  single  sentence ;  the  brown  thrush^ 
a  more  formidable  rival,  ,,re.quires  about  three  times  the 
space;  while  the  admirable  qualities  of  the  mocking-bird 
"Till  much  the  greater  part  of  the  paragraph.  The  desira- 
bility of  encouraging  the  mocking-bird  to  stay  is  also  treated 
with  considerable  fulness. 

Mocking-birds  are  scarce  in  Chattanooga.  To  the  best  of  my 
recollection,  I  saw  none  in  the  city  itself  and  less  than  half  a  dozen 
in  the  surrounding  country.  A  young  gentleman  whom  I  ques- 
tioned upon  the  subject  told  me  that  they  used  to  be  common,  and 
attributed  their  present  increasing  rarity  to  the  persecutions  of  boys, 
who  find  a  profit  in  selling  the  young  into  captivity.  1  Their  place, 
in  the  city  especially,  is  taken  by  cat-birds ;  interesting,  imitative, 
and  in  their  own  measure  tuneful,  but  poor  substitutes  for  mocking- 
bird^\jln  faet,  it  is  impossible  to  think  of  any  bird  as  really  filling 
that  role.  I  The  brown  thrush,  it  is  true,  sings  quite  in  the  mock- 
ing-bird's manner,  and,  to  my  ear,  almost  or  quite  as  well ;  but 
he  possesses  no  gift  as  a  mimic,  and  furthermore,  without  being 
exactly  a  bird  of  the  forest  or  the  wilderness,  is  instinctively  and 
irreclaimably  a  recluse.  It  would  be  hard,  even^mong  human 
beings,  to  find  a  nature  less  touched  with  urbanity.  jIn  the  mock- 
ing-bird the  elements  are  more  happily  mixed.  Not  gregarious, 
intolerant  of  rivalry,  and,  as  far  as  creatures  of  his  own  kind  are 
concerned,  a  stickler  for  elbow-room,  —  sharing  with  his  brown 
relative  in  this  respect,  —  he  is  at  the  same  time  a  born  citizen  and 
neighbor ;  as  fond  of  gardens  and  door-yard  trees  as  the  thrasher  is 
of  scrublands  and  barberry  bushes.  "  Man  delights  me,"  he  might 
say,  "and  woman  also."  He  likes  to  be  listened  to,  it  is  pretty 
certain;  and  possibly  he  is  dimly  aware  of  the  artistic  value  of 
appreciation,  without  which  no  artist  ever  did  his  best.     Add  to 


286  Composition-Rhetoric. 

this  endearing  social  quality  the  splendor  and  freedom  of  the 
mocker's  vocal  performances,  multifarious,  sensational,  incompara- 
ble, by  turns  entrancing  and  amusing,  and  it  is  easy  to  understand 
how  he  has  come  to  hcli  a  place  by  himself  in  Southern  sentiment 
and  literature.  A  city  without  mocking-birds  is  only  half  Southern, 
though  black  faces  be  never  so  thick  upon  the  sidewalks  and  mules 
never  so  common  in  the  streets.  If  the  boys  have  driven  the  great 
mimic  away  from  Chattanooga,  it  is  time  the  fathers  took  the  boys 
in  hand.  Civic  pride  alone  ought  to  bring  this  about,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  possible  effect  upon  real  estate  values  of  the  abun- 
dant and  familiar  presence  of  this  world-renowned,  town-loving, 
town-charming  songster. — Atlantic,  77:  198. 

Show  by  length  of  treatment   the  relative  importance  of  the 

>  thoughts  in  an  essay  or  in  a  single  paragraph.    Where,  in  an  essay, 

sub-divisions  are  numerous  and  minute,  a  number  of  less  important 

sub-topics  may  be  grouped  in  one  paragraph,  while  a  relatively  more 

important  sub-topic  may  occupy  a  paragraph  by  itself^ 


EXERCISE_J22. 

Divide  each  of  the  following  paragraphs  into  its  two  or 
three  parts.  Show  how  the  length  at  which  each  part  is 
treated  indicates  its  relative  importance. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Australian  megapod  is  a  bird  that  is 
accustomed  not  to  sit  on  its  own  eggs.  In  certain  parts  of  Aus- 
tralia are  found  numerous  mounds  of  considerable  size  and  height, 
which  the  first  explorers  took  to  be  burial  mounds.  These  were 
made  by  the  Megapodius  tumulus,  which  uses  them  for  hatching  its 
eggs.  They  have  sometimes  considerable  dimensions  :  a  nest  that 
is  14  feet  high  and  55  feet  in  circumference  may  be  regarded  as 
large.  Each  megapod  builds  its  own  nest  with  materials  which 
it  gathers  from  all  sides,  and  these  are  exactly  what  the  gardener 
uses  in  the  month  of  March  to  make  his  forcing-beds;  namely, 
leaves  and  decomposing  vegetable  matter,  which,  by  their  fermen- 
tation, give  off  an  appreciable  amount  of  heat.  In  the  forcing- 
beds,  this  heat  hastens  the  sprouting  of  the  seeds ;  in  the  nest  it 


Eow  Much  to  Say.  287 

suffices  for  the  development  and  hatching  of  the  young  Mrds,  and 
the  mother  can  go  where  she  likes  and  occupy  herself  as  she  wishes, 
-without  being  troubled  by  the  duties  of  settin^^^  In  the  small 
island  of  Mnafou,  in  the  Pacific,  another  bird  has  a  somewhat 
similar  habit,  in  so  far  as  it  also  abandons  its  eggs ;  but  in  place 
of  obtaining  the  necessary  heat  from  fermentation,  it  gets  it  from 
warm  sand.  The  Leipoa  or  native  pheasant  of  Australia  acts  like 
the  megapod,  and  watches  the  temperature  of  its  mound  very 
closely,  covering  and  uncovering  the  eggs  several  times  a  day  to 
cool  them  or  heat  them,  as  becomes  necessary.  After  hatching, 
the  young  bird  remains  in  the  mound  several  hours ;  it  leaves  on 
the  second  day,  but  returns  for  the  night,  and  not  until  the  third 
day  is  it  able  to  quit  the  paternal  abode. 

The  courage  we  desire  and  prize  is  not  the  courage  to  die  de- 
cently, but  to  live  manfully.  This,  when  by  God's  grace  it  has 
been  given,  lies  deep  in  the  soul ;  like  genial  heat,  fosters  all  other 
virtues  and  gifts ;  without  it  they  could  not  liveT^  In  spite  of  our 
innumerable  Waterloos  and  Peterloos,  and  such  campaigning  as 
there  has  been,  this  courage  we  allude  to,  and  call  the  only  true 
one,  is  perhaps  rarer  in  these  last  ages  than  it  has  been  in  any 
other  since  the  Saxon  Invasion  under  HengistT^  Altogether  ex- 
tinct it  can  never  be  among  men ;  otherwise  the  species  man  were 
no  longer  for  this  world :  here  and  there,  in  all  times,  under  vari- 
ous guises,  men  are  sent  hither  not  only  to  demonstrate  but  exhibit 
it,  and  testify,  as  from  heart  to  heart,  that  it  is  still  possible,  still 
practicable.  —  Carlyle:  BosiuelVs  Life  of  Johnson. 

In  whatsoever  light  we  examine  the  characteristics  of  the  Laure- 
ate's genius,  the  complete  and  even  balance  of  his  poetry  is  from 
first  to  last  conspicuous.  It  exhibits  that  just  combination  of  lyri- 
cal elements  which  makes  a  symphony,  wherein  it  is  difficult  to 
say  what  quality  predominates.  Reviewing  minor  poets,  we  think 
this  one  attractive  for  the  wald  flavor  of  his  unstudied  verse ; 
another,  for  the  gush  and  music  of  his  songs;  a  third,  for  idyllic 
sweetness  or  tragic  power  |  but  in  Tennyson  we  have  the  strong 
repose  of  art,  whereof  —  as*of  the  perfection  of  nature  —  the  world 
is  slow  to  tire.  It  has  become  conventional,  but  remember  that 
nothing  endures  to  the  point  of  conventionalism  which  is  not  based 


288  Composition-Rhetoric, 

upon  lasting  rules;  that  it  once  was  new  and  refreshing,  and  is 
sure,  in  future  days,  to  regain  the  early  charm.  —  Stedman  :  Vic- 
torian Poets,  182. 


3E  123.    ylMg^lfii^ 


EXERCISE 

Make  one  paragrapK"of"eililier  of  the  following.  Give  to 
each  point  a  length  of  treatment  corresponding  to  what  you 
consider  to  be  its  relative  importance. 

Slang  should  be  avoided  because  (a)  some  of  it  is  vulgar  and 
brings  up  bad  suggestions,  (^5'|pst5me  of  it  while  not  offensive  in 
that  way  is  without  meaning  to  other  people  to  whom  it  may  be 
addressed, -<^  all  of  it  is  needless :  there  are  words  of  good  stand*- 
ing  for  all  of  our  ideas,  and  \c^  the  continued  use  of  a  pet  slang 
phrase  in  many  meanings  prevents  the  user  from  making  due  dis- 
tinctions in  the  use  of  language,  from  searching  for  the  fitting 
word  to  use  in  every  case,  and  thus  from  acquiring  and  increasing 
his  vocabulary  of  reputable  words,  (e)  besides,  a  slang  expression 
is  likely  to  slip  out  before  he  thinks,  on  an  occasion  when  it  leads 
to  his  discomfort  and  embarrassment. 

A  certain  amount  of  daily  exercise  is  of  advantage  to  every  man 
who  works  with  his  brain,  because  (a)  it  enables  him  to  do  more 
and  better  work,  (6)  it  promotes  a  spirit  of  cheerfulness  and  soci- 
ability, (c)  it  diminishes  liability  to  disease  and  break-down, 
(ri)  it  gives  him  extra  strength  for  times  of  great  mental  labor  or 
anxiety,  (e)  it  tends  to  prolong  his  life. 


«i^' 


EXERCISE  124, 


Account  for  the  relative  proportions  of  the  following  con- 
nected paragraphs :  — 

The  laboratory  method  in  natural  science  is  vastly  superior 
to  the  now  obsolete  exclusive  text-book  method,  which  was  used  in 
some  places  a  generation  ago.  The  study  of  natural  science  loses 
its  value  as  a  means  of  cultivating  the  faculties,  when  the  method 
employed  fails  to  lead  to  the  observation  of,  and  experimenting 
with,  the  objects  of  nature.      The  tools   which   Providence   has 


How  Much  to  Say.  289 

given  to  man  for  his  life  in  nature  are  his  senses  and  his  hands. 
Instruction  in  science  becomes  unprofitable  when  it  is  not  based 
on  the  pupil's  own  observation  and  activity. 

Yet,  while  progressive  high-school  teachers  agree  on  laboratory 
work  in  natural  science,  another  element  should  receive  equal 
consideration.  Just  as  necessary  as  an  acquaintance  with  the 
archetypal  forms  of  nature  by  direct  inspection,  and  of  the  obser- 
vational facts  by  direct  experiment,  is  the  unifying,  reasoning- 
process,  which  sits  enthroned  above  the  myriads  of  facts  and  is  as 
important  a  condition  of  observation  as  the  activity  of  the  senses 
and  the  hands.  Reason,  with  its  generalizing  powers,  is  the  com- 
pass which  alone  prevents  the  student  from  becoming  bewildered 
in  the  maze  of  details.  Not  only  the  typical  fabts,  but  the  leading 
lines  of  the  whole  field  of  the  study  should  be  surveyed  by  the 
pupil.  These  leading  lines,  however,  cannot  always  be  taught  by 
experiments  performed  by  the  pupil  himself,  but  he  must  receive 
some  truths  at  second-hand  through  experiments  which  he  wit- 
nesses but  does  not  perform,  and  by  literary  communication 
through  text-book  and  lecture.  The  total  elimination  of  text- 
book study  by  laboratory  work  would  be  an  extreme  that  does  not 
commend  itself.  The  individual  scientist  who  does  not  know  a 
hundred-fold  more  of  nature  than  he  has  learned  from  his  own 
personal  experimenting  would  be  comparatively  ignorant.  Thor- 
oughness in  a  limited  field  is  not  at  all  opposed  to  a  certain  com- 
prehensiveness of  information.  It  is  in  fact  aided  by  a  general 
acquaintance  with  the  leading  lines  of  the  subject.  What  reader 
of  Gibbon's  Rome,  when  opening  a  new  volume,  would  not  fee] 
aided  by  a  preliminary  comprehensive  survey  of  the  period  in  an 
encyclopaedia  or  brief  text-book  ? 

The  old  method  of  the  literary  study  of  natural  science,  which 
sacrificed  thoroughness  to  comprehensiveness,  and  depth  to 
breadth,  was  vicious ;  but  the  opposite  course  would  be  as  great 
an  error.  Generally  speaking,  thoroughness  may  become,  and  at 
times  has  become,  a  fetish  to  which  hecatombs  of  vital  educational 
interest  have  been  slaughtered.  For  instance,  to  keep  a  child  in 
the  elementary  school  on  one  topic  for  the  purpose  of  attaining 
ideal  perfection  until  living  interest  and  ambition  are  killed,  and 
instruction  becomes  irksome,  would  be  paying  too  high  a  price  for 
thoroughness. 


290  Composition-Rhetoric, 

EXERCISE  125. 

1.  Make  an  analysis  of  the  essay  by  Higginson  in  Exer- 
cise 38,  with  headings  and  sub-headings.  Is  any  sub-topic 
given  a  whole  paragraph  by  itself  ?  What  groupings  of 
sub-topics  into  a  single  paragraph  do  you  notice  ?  Test 
the  relative  importance  of  paragraphs  by  their  relative 
length. 

2.  Make  a  similar  analysis  of  an  essay  in  one  of  the 
current  magazines.^ 

EXERCISE  126. 

Make  three  paragraphs  of  the  following  material,  showing, 
by  grouping  of  sub-topics  and  length  of  treatment,  what 
you  consider  to  be  their  relative  importance. 

Advantages  of  a  Free  Public  Library. 

1.  Advantages  to  the  community  in  general :  — 

a.  It  elevates  the  tone  of  life  in  the  community, 

(1)  By  creating  an  intellectual  interest, 

(2)  By  supplanting  less  worthy  interests, 

(3)  By  affording  a  centre  of  culture. 

h.  Out  of  it  usually  grow  other  worthy  institutions : 

(1)  Literary  clubs  and  societies  of  various  sorts, 

(2)  Lecture  courses. 

c    It  helps  the  work  of  schools  and  churches. 

2.  Advantages  to  individuals  in  the  community. 

a.  To  the  teacher  it  affords  a  wider  range  of  reference  books. 
h.  To  the  pupil  a  chance  for  further  reading  in  the  line  of  his 
school  studies. 

c.  To  the  general  reader  a  wider  selection. 

d.  To  non-readers  a  stimulus  to  begin. 

1  A  list  of  essays  for  practice  of  this  kind  will  be  found  in  Appendix  C. 


How  Much  to  Say.  291 

^^     LESSON  35.    n/J^^;^^ 
Subordination  of  Farts. 

Besides  length  of  treatment  and  grouping  of  sub-topics, 
other  devices  are  employed  at  times  to  show  the  relative 
importance  of  topics.  Sometimes  bold  expressions  are  used, 
such  as  "The  main  point  is  this,"  "Less  important  but  still 
worthy  of  mention  is  the  following,'^  "After  all,  the  great 
fact  remains  that,"  "A  more  important  reason  is."  These 
and  similar  expressions  tell  the  reader  plainly,  though  some- 
what bluntly,  what  relative  degree  of  importance  to  attach 
to  the  paragraph  or  part  of  the  paragraph  concerned. 

The  following  paragraph  contains  an  expression  of  this 
kind,  here  printed  in  italics :  — 

The  present  inspection  of  immigrants  at  American  ports  before 
they  are  permitted  to  land  seems  to  be  about  as  effective  a  way  as 
can  be  devised  to  exclude  the  prohibited  classes.  The  inspection 
system  now  in  force  lays  down  rigidly  who  are  excli^ded  from  land- 
ing under  the  laws.  Inspectors  are  appointed  to  enforce  the  regu- 
lations. And  more  important  than  all  else,  the  steamship  companies 
are  required  to  carry  back  the  excluded  immigrants  at  their  own 
cost.  This  makes  them  very  careful  in  taking  immigrant  passen- 
gers. It  imposes  on  them  the  preliminary  inspection  in  Europe. 
The  rest  is  done  by  American  inspectors,  whose  work,  if  necessary, 
can  be  supplemented  by  agents  stationed  at  European  ports.  The 
weeding  out  of  undesirable  immigrants  from  the  flood  of  Italians 
now  pouring  into  ISTew  York  is  evidence  of  the  good  work  pos- 
sible under  the  existing  system.  The  carrying  back  of  a  few 
hundred  immigrants  amounts  to  a  heavy  fine  on  the  steamship 
companies  for  bringing  them  over. 

In  the  following  the  subordination  is  less  blunt  and  more 
skilfully  managed.  ISTotice  especially  the  latter  part  of  the 
fourth  sentence  beginning  with  the  word  "  but." 


292  Composition-Rhetoric. 

1.  1  pray  you,  O  excellent  wife,  not  to  cumber  yourself  and  me 
to  get  a  rich  dinner  for  this  man  or  this  woman  who  has  alighted 
at  our  gate,  nor  a  bed-chamber  made  ready  at  too  great  a  cost. 
2.  These  things,  if  they  are  curious  in  them,  they  can  get  for  a 
dollar  at  any  village.  3.  But  let  this  stranger,  if  he  will,  in  your 
looks,  in  your  accent  and  behavior,  read  your  heart  and  earnestness, 
your  thought  and  will,  —  which  he  cannot  buy  at  any  price  in  any 
village  or  city,  and  which  he  may  well  travel  fifty  miles,  and  dine 
sparely  and  sleep  hard,  m  order  to  behold.  4.  Certainly  let  the 
board  be  spread,  and  let  the  bed  be  dressed  for  the  traveller, ^ut. 
let  not  the  emphasis  of  hospitality  lie  in  these  things.  5.  Honor 
to  the  house  where  they  are  simple  to  the  verge  of  hardship,  so 
that  there  the  intellect  is  awake  and  reads  the  law  of  the  universe, 
the  soul  worships  truth  and  love,  honor  and  courtesy  flow  into  all 
deeds.  —  Emerson:  Domestic  Life. 

Statements  introduced  by  ^^and,"  "likewise/'  "but," 
"therefore,"  "accordingly,"  are  recognized  at  once  as  of 
at  least  equal  importance  with  preceding  statements. 

There  is  no  enlargement,  unless  there  be  a  comparison  of  ideas 
one  with  another,  as  they  come  before  the  mind,  and  a  systema- 
tizing of  them.  We  feel  our  minds  to  be  growing  and  expanding 
then,  when  we  not  only  learn,  but  refer  what  we  learn  to  what  we 
know  already.  ...  And  therefore  a  truly  great  intellect  is  one 
which  takes  a  connected  view  of  old  and  new,  past  and  present, 
far  and  near,  and  which  has  an  insight  into  the  influence  of  all 
these,  one  on  another ;  without  which  there  is  no  whole,  and  no 
centre.  It  possesses  the  knowledge,  not  only  of  things,  but  also 
of  their  mutual  and  true  relations ;  knowledge,  not  merely  con- 
sidered as  an  acquirement,  but  as  philosophy. 

Accordingly,  when  this  analytical,  distributive,  harmonizing 
process  is  away,  the  mind  experiences  no  enlargement,  and  is  not 
reckoned  as  enlightened  or  comprehensive,  whatever  it  may  add 
to  its  knowledge.  For  instance,  a  great  memory,  as  I  have  already 
said,  does  not  make  a  philosopher,  any  more  than  a  dictionary  can 
be  called  a  grammar.  There  are  men  who  embrace  in  their  minds 
a  vast  multitude  of  ideas,  but  with  little  sensibility  about  their 
real  relations  towards  each  other.  ...     If  they  are  nothing  more 


How  Much  to  Say,  293 

than  Avell-read  men,  or  men  of  information,  tliey  have  not  what 
specially  deserves  the  name  of  culture  of  mind,  or  fulfils  the  type 
of  Liberal  Education. 

In  like  manner,  we  sometimes  fall  in  with  persons  who  have 
seen  milch'  of  the  world,  and  of  the  men  who,  in  their  day,  have 
played  a  conspicuous  part  in  it,  but  who  generalize  nothing,  and 
have  no  observation,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  They  abound 
in  information  in  detail,  curious  and  entertaining,  about  men  and 
things ;  and,  having  lived  under  the  influence  of  no  very  clear  or 
settled  principles,  they  speak  of  every  one  and  every  thing,  only 
as  so  many  phenomena,  which  are  complete  in  themselves,  and 
lead  to  nothing,  not  discussing  them,  or  teaching  any  truth,  or  in- 
structing the  hearer,  but  simply  talking. 

The  reader  recognizes  that  such  expressions  as  "  it  is  true/' 
^'  to  be  sure/'  "  indeed/'  "  I  admit  that/'  introduce  conces- 
sions which  the  writer  wishes  him  to  regard  as  of  less  impor- 
tance than  the  sentences  introduced  by  "  still/'  "  yet/'  "  but/' 
"nevertheless/'  or  "however/'  which  are  almost  sure  to 
follow. 

There  are  virtues,  indeed,  which  the  world  is  not  fitted  to  judge 
of  or  to  uphold,  such  as  faith,  hope,  and  charity ;  but  it  can  judge 
about  truthfulness ;  it  can  judge  about  the  natural  virtues,  and 
truthfulness  is  one  of  them.  Natural  virtues  may  also  become 
supernatural ;  truthfulness  is  such,  but  that  does  not  withdraw  it 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  mankind  at  large. 

At  the  main  divisions  of  a  long  discourse  there  are  some- 
times found  whole  sentences,  more  often  parts  of  sentences, 
whose  business  it  is  to  indicate  the  relative  importance  of 
the  divisions  in  the  scheme  of  the  whole  discourse. 

Thus  in  Webster's  eulogy  of  Adams  and  Jefferson  the  second 
division  of  the  discourse  begins  as  follows  :  "  The  occasion,  fellow- 
citizens,  requires  some  account  of  the  lives  and  services  of  John 
Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson.  This  duty  must  necessarily  be 
performed  with  great  brevity,  and  in  the  discharge  of  it  I  shall  be 


294  Composition-Rhetoric , 

obliged  to  confine  myself,  principally,  to  those  parts  of  their 
history  and  character  which  belonged  to  them  as  public  men." 
By  this  announcement  the  reader  is  prepared  for  the  short 
biographies  which  form  the  second  and  third  divisions  (para- 
graphs 12-24).  The  fourth  division  begins  as  follows:  "And 
now,  fellow-citizens,  without  pursuing  the  biography  of  these 
illustrious  men  further,  for  the  present,  let  us  turn  our  attention  to 
the  most  prominent  act  of  their  lives,  their  participation  in  the 
Declaration  of  Independence."  Since  this  suggests  a  fuller  treat- 
ment, the  reader  is  not  surprised  to  find  that  the  fourth  division 
contains  twenty-five  paragraphs.  The  fifth  division  is  but  a  single 
paragraph,  and  is  appropriately  introduced  by  the  following 
sentence,  "It  would  be  unjust,  fellow-citizens,  on  this  occasion, 
while  we  express  our  veneration  for  him  who  is  the  immediate 
subject  of  these  remarks,  were  we  to  ornit  a  most  respectful,  affec- 
tionate, and  grateful  mention  of  those  other  great  men,  his  col- 
leagues, who  stood  with  him,  and  with  the  same  spirit,  the  same 
devotion,  took  part  in  the  interesting  transaction." 

Canon  Farrar  in  his  lecture  on  Dante,  after  dwelling  at  some 
length  upon  the  Inferno^  opens  the  briefer  second  division  of  the 
lecture  with  the  words,  "  Time  does  not  permit  me  to  give  you 
even  an  outline  of  Purgatory"  and  the  still  briefer  third  division 
with  "  I  shall  say  scarcely  anything  of  the  Paradise.'"  The  length 
of  the  conclusion  is  indicated  by  the  words,  "  I  hasten  to  con- 
clude "  and  "  I  will  end  with  two  remarks." 

It  is  easy  to  fall  into  the  habit  of  using  more  of  these 
subordinating  expressions  than  are  necessary.  Few  of  them 
are  needed  when  the  thoughts  are  clear  and  well  arranged. 

Use  expressions  of  subordination,  when  necessary,  to  indicate  the 
relative  importance  of  thoughts. 

EXERCISE  127. 

Point  out  subordinating  expressions  in  the  following. 
Classify  these  expressions  and  show  that  each  indicates 
properly  the  relative  importance  of  the  sentences  or  parts 
of  sentences  which  it  seems  to  subordinate. 


How  Much  to  Say,  295 

Pitiful  is  the  case  of  the  blind,  who  cannot  read  the  face; 
pitiful  that  of  the  deaf,  who  cannot  follow  the  changes  of  the 
voice.  And  there  are  others j,lso  to  be  pitied;  for  there  are  some 
of  an  inert,  uneloquent  nature,  who  have  been  denied  all  the  sym- 
bols of  communication,  who  have  neither  a  lively  play  of  facial 
expression,  nor  speaking  gestures,  nor  a  responsive  voice,  nor  yet 
the  girt  of  frank,  explanatory  speech :  people  truly  made  of  clay, 
people  tied  for  life  into  a  bag  which  no  one  can  undo.  They  are 
poorer  than  the  gipsy,  for  their  heart  can  speak  no  language  under 
heaven.  Such  people  we  must  learn  slowly  by  the  tenor  of  their 
acts,  or  through  "  yea  "  and  "  nay  "  communications ;  or,  we  take 
them  on  trust  on  the  strength  of  a  general  air,  and  now  and  again, 
when  we  see  the  spirit  breaking  through  in  a  flash,  correct  or 
change  our  estimate.  But  these  will  be  uphill  intimacies,  without 
charm  or  freedom,  to  the  end ;  and  freedom  is  the  chief  ingredient 
in  confidence.  Some  minds,  romantically  dull,  despise  physical 
endowments.  That  is  a  doctrine  for  a  misanthrope ;  to  those  who 
like  their  fellow-creatures,  it  must  always  be  meaningless ; ..  and^ 
for  my  part,  I  can  see  few  things  more  desirable,  after  the  posses- 
sion of  such  radical  qualities  as  honor,  and  humor,  and  pathos, 
than  to  have  a  lively,  and  not  a  stolid,  countenance ;  to  have  looks 
to  correspond  with  every  feeling ;  to  be  elegant  and  delightful  in 
person,  so  that  we  shall  please  even  in  the  intervals  of  active 
pleasing,  and  may  never  discredit  speech  with  uncouth  manners, 
or  become  unconsciously  our  own  burlesques.  But  of  all  unfortu- 
nates, there  is  one  creature  (for  I  will  not  call  him  man)  conspicu- 
ous in  misfortune.  This  is  he  who  has  forfeited  his  birthright  of 
expression ;  who  has  cultivated  artful  intonations ;  who  has  taught 
his  face  tricks,  like  a  pet  monkey,  and,  on  every  side,  perverted  or 
cut  off  his  means  of  communication  with  his  fellowmen.  The 
body  is  a  house  of  many  windows :  there  we  all  sit  showing  our- 
selves, and  crying  on  the  passers-by  to  come  and  love  us.  But  this 
'ellow  has  filled  his  windows  with  opaque  glass  elegantly  colored, 
is  house  may  be  admired  for  its  design,  the  crowd  may  pause 
fore  the  stained  windows,  but  meanwhile  the  poor  proprietor 
(list  lie  within,  uncomf orted,  unchangeably  alone.  —  Stevenson  : 


296  )[      Composition-Rhetoric, 


EXERCISE  128. 

Insert  proper  words  of  subordination  in  the  following  at 
places  indicated  by  carets :  — 

In  reading  the  Russian  papers,  the  Czar  noticed  that  they  were^ 
not  so  outspoken  as  the  papers  of  other  countries.  He  noticed  (^^^.t^ 
that,  in  their  guarded  utterances,  he  never  found  any  reference  to 
official  abuses  which,  he  knew,  must  exist  in  Russia  as  in  other 
countries.  He  knew  y{^mat  there  is  a  censorship  of  the  press  in 
his  realm,  but  he  had  not  the  slightest  idea  of  the  extent  to  w^hich 
the  censors  puppre^s'  independent  expressions  in  the  papers.  He 
determined'^^  that  at  least  one  paper  should  be  perfectly  free  to 
criticise  the  government.  /^ '  he  summoned  the  editor  of  The 
St.  Petersburg  Viedomosti,  a  paper  that  has  been  published  for 
170  years,  and  announced  his  intention  of  relieving  him  of  cen- 
sure. ^^  When  the  high  officials  learned  of,  the  Czar's  purpose,  they 
^  advisied  strongly  against  it.  The  Czar^^Ji^'^mtiinSS  firm.  Then 
the  officials  had  recourse  to  an  old  and  well-tried  method  of  cir- 
cumventing their  imperial  master,  and  of  saving  themselves  from 
exposure.  They  provided  the  editor  with  a  position  in  the  Russo- 
Chinese  Bank  at  a  princely  salary,  and  subscribed  for  many  thoi^-^^  ^  ■ 
sands  of  copies  of  the  paper.  The  prosperity  of  the  Viedomosti  is  /(^ 
assured.  It  is  ''/\^"  a 'prosperity  that  depends,  on  continued  official 
favor.  The  paper  is  free  to  criticise ;  -y^  Strange  to  say,  it  shows 
less  disposition  to  find  fault  with  the  official  classes  than  befpre  it 
was  relieved  of  censorship.  /^  its  freedom  is  an  illusion.  /^  the 
Czar  is  puzzled.  •  \ 

EXERCISE  129. 

Examine,  with  your  teacher,  one  of  the  following  for 
expressions  which  indicate  the  relative  importance  of  the 
parts :  — 

1.  De  Quincey's  Joan  of  Arc.  2.  One  of  Macaulay's  Essays, 
3.  An  article  in  The  Forum  magazine.  4.  An  article  in  The  North 
American  Review.  5.  An  article  in  The  New  York  Independent. 
6.  Any  chapter  of  a  book  which  your  teacher  may  assign  to  you. 


How  Much  to  Say,  297 


/  LESSON  36. 

Expayision. 

In  order  to  make  an  important  topic  show  for  what  it  is 
worth,  it  must  be  developed  into  its  particular  phases  or 
considered  from  several  points  of  view.  One  or  more  of 
the  general  methods  described  in  Lessons  12  to  19  may  be 
employed  for  this  purpose,  but  in  some  cases  a  particular 
application  of  one  of  these  general  methods  will  be  more 
convenient.  For  instance,  an  apt  anecdote  or  incident  is 
a  very  frequent  method  of  expanding  an  important  point. 
Thus  in  the  following :  — 

The  Admirals  are  typical  in  the  full  force  of  the  word.  They 
are  splendid  examples  of  virtue,  indeed,  but  of  a  virtue  in  which 
most  Englishmen  can  claim  a  moderate  share;  and  what  we 
admire  in  their  lives  is  a  sort  of  apotheosis  of  ourselves.  .  .  . 

Duncan,  lying  off  the  Texel  with  his  own  flagship,  the  Venera- 
ble, and  only  one  other  vessel,  heard  that  the  whole  Dutch  fleet 
was  putting  to  sea.  He  told  Captain  Hotham  to  anchor  along- 
side of  him  in  the  narrowest  part  of  the  channel,  and  fight  his 
vessel  till  she  sank.  "I  have  taken  the  depth  of  the  water," 
added  he,  "and  when  the  Venerable  goes  down,  my  flag  will  still 
fly."  And  you  observe  this  is  no  naked  Viking  in  a  prehistoric 
period;  but  a  Scotch  member  of  Parliament,  with  a  smattering 
of  the  classics,  a  telescope,  a  cocked  hat  of  great  size,  and  flannel 
underclothing.  —  Stevenson  :    Virginihus  Puerisque. 

An  apt  quotation  of  considerable  length  is  another  method 
of  expansion.  In  the  following,  Stevenson  having  asked- 
what  motive  inspired  the  hero  Douglas  to  burn  up  with  his 
ship,  the  Eoyal  Oak,  when  he  might  have  left  it  and  saved 
his  life,  continues :  "  Many  will  tell  you  it  was  the  desire 
of  fame."  In  opposition  to  this  view,  Stevenson  quotes 
from  Montaigne's  essay  on  "  Glory  "  as  follows :  — 


298 


Oomposition-Rhetoric. 


To  what  do  Caesar  and  Alexander  owe  the  infinite  grandeur 
of  their  renown  but  to  fortune?  How  many  men  has  she  extin- 
guished in  the  beginning  of  their  progress,  of  whom  we  have  no 
knowledge;  who  brought  as  much  courage  to  the  work  as  they, 
if  their  adverse  hap  had  not  cut  them  off  in  the  first  sally  of  their 
arms  ?  Amongst  so  many  and  so  great  dangers,  I  do  not  remem- 
ber to  have  anywhere  read  that  Caesar  was  ever  wounded ;  a  thou- 
sand have  fallen  in  less  dangers  than  the  least  of  those  he  went 
through.  A  great  many  brave  actions  must  be  expected  to  be  per- 
formed without  witness,  for  one  that  comes  to  some  notice.  A  man 
is  not  always  at  the  top  of  a  breach,  or  at  the  head  of  an  army,  in 
the  sight  of  his  general,  as  upon  a  platform.  He  is  often  surprised 
between  the  hedge  and  the  ditch ;  he  must  run  the  hazard  of  his 
life  against  a  hen-roost ;  he  must  dislodge  four  rascally  musketeers 
out  of  a  barn ;  he  must  prick  out  single  from  his  party,  as  neces- 
sity arises,  and  meet  adventures  alone. 

Sometimes  an  important  thought  is  merely  stated  in  one 
paragraph  in  connection  with  other  thoughts,  and  is  ex- 
panded in  the  next  paragraph.  This  is  illustrated  by  the 
preceding  quotation. 

When  it  is  desired  to  expand  one  part  of  a  narrative  or 
description,  more  details  and  particulars  are  added  to  that 
part.  Thus  in  Tom  Brown  at  Oxford,  Chapters  XIII  and 
XI Y,  the  author  expands  in  one  description  the  incidents 
which  he  treats  briefly  in  the  other.  The  following  extracts 
will  exemplify  his  method :  — 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

It  is  an  awful  moment.  But 
the  coxswain,  though  almost 
dragged  backwards  ofE  his  seat, 
is  equal  to  the  occasion.  He 
holds  his  watch  in  his  right 
hand  with   the   tiller   rope. 

*' Eight  seconds  more  only. 
Look  out  for  the  flash.  Re- 
member, all  eyes  in  the  boat." 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

After  a  few  moments  of 
breathless  hush  on  the  bank, 
the  last  gun  is  fired  and  they 
are  off. 


Hoiv  Much  to  Say. 


299 


There  it  comes  at  last  —  the 
flash  of  the  starting-gim.  Long- 
before  the  sound  of  the  report 
can  roll  up  the  river,  the  whole 
pent-up  life  and  energy  which 
has  been  held  in  leash,  as  it 
were,  for  the  last  six  minutes, 
is  let  loose  and  breaks  away 
with  a  bound  and  a  dash  which 
he  who  has  felt  it  will  remem- 
ber for  his  life,  but  the  like  of 
which,  will  he  ever  feel  again? 
The  starting-ropes  drop  from 
the  coxswains'  hands,  the  oars 
flash  into  the  water,  and  gleam 
on  the  feather,  the  spray  flies 
from  them,  and  the  boats  leap 
forward. 


In  a  single  sentence  to  which  the  greater  distinction  of 
greater  length  is  to  be  given,  single  adjectives  are  changed 
to  phrases,  phrases  to  clauses,  andrmew  phTrases^  and  clauses, 
going  more  into  detail,  are  added.  These  changes  are  illus- 
trated By  the  parallel  passages  below.  Those  in  the  left- 
hand  column  are  from  Green's  Short  History  of  the  English 
People;  those  in  the  right-hand  column  are  from  the  same 
author's  longer  History. 


1.  His  enjoyment  of  the  gay- 
ety  of  life  stands  in  bright  con- 
trast with  the  gloom  and  stern- 
ness of  the  later  Puritanism. 


2.  Hooker  urged  that  a  Di- 
vine order  exists,  not  in  writ- 
ten revelation  only,  but  in  the 
moral  relations,  and  the  social 


1.  Milton's  enjoyment  of  the 
gayety  of  life  stands  in  bright 
contrast  with  the  gloom  and 
sternness  which  strife  and  per- 
secution fostered  in  Puritanism 
at  a  later  time. 

2.  Hooker  urged  that  a  Di- 
vine order  exists,  not  in  written 
revelation  only,  but  in  the  moral 
relations,   the   historical   devel- 


300 


Composition-Rhetoric. 


and     political     institutions     of 
men. 

3.  He  now  offered  to  sail  to 
the  Orinoco,  and  discover  a  gold 
mine  which  he  believed  to  exist 
on  its  banks. 


opment,  and  the  social  and  polit- 
ical institutions  of  men. 

3.  As  years  went  by,  the  new 
world,  where  he  had  founded 
Virginia  and  where  he  had 
gleaned  news  of  a  Golden  City, 
threw  more  and  more  a  spell 
over  his  imagination ;  and  at 
this  moment  he  disclosed  to 
James  his  knowledge  of  a  gold 
mine  on  the  Orinoco,  and  prayed 
that  he  might  sail  thither  and 
work  its  treasures  for  the  king. 


The  latter  part  of  a  sentence  is  sometimes  expanded  for 
the  sake  of  giving  fulness  of  sound  at  the  close.  The  words 
after  "  region  "  at  the  close  of  the  following  are  in  point. 

As  surely  as  the  wolf  retires  before  cities,  does  the  fairy  seques- 
ter herself  from  the  haunts  of  the  licensed  victualler.  A  village 
is  too  much  for  her  nervous  delicacy :  at  most,  she  can  tolerate  a 
distant  view  of  a  hamlet.  We  may  judge,  therefore,  by  the  un- 
easiness and  extra  trouble  which  they  gave  to  the  parson,  in  what 
strength  the  fairies  mustered  at  Domremy ;  and,  by  a  satisfactory 
consequence,  how  thinly  sown  with  n^en  and  women  must  have 
been  that  region  even  in  its  inhabited  spots.  —  De  Quincey  :  Joan 
of  Arc. 

Additions  made  for  this  purpose  should  combine  fulness 
of  sound  with  fulness  of  thought.  Whatever  is  added 
should  grow  naturally  from  the  main  idea  and  so  become 
a  vital  member  of  the  sentence. 

The  need  of  expansion  appears  when  one  is  trying  to  in- 
terpret and  explain  a  difficult  or  obscure  passage  which  he 
finds  in  the  writings  of  some  author  whom  he  is  studying. 
In  order  to  bring  out  the  full  meaning  of  such  a  passage, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  re-state  it  at  greater  length,  to  ex- 
amine it  from  more  than  one  point  of  view,  to  use  simpler 


Hotv  Much  to  Say.  801 

words,  perhaps,  and  more  of  them,  to  provide  illustrations, 
and  to  call  attention  to  hidden  meanings.  There  is  danger 
in  this  work  of  putting  in  something  that  the  author  did 
not  mean,  and  of  cheapening  the  thought,  but  in  spite  of 
that  danger,  the  work  is  necessary.  Notice  in  the  following 
how  the  rather  enigmatic  statement  quoted  in  the  first  sen- 
tence is  cleared  up  and  filled  with  meaning  by  the  comments 
which  follow :  — 

"It  takes,"  says  Thoreau,  in  the  noblest  and  most  useful  passage 
I  remember  to  have  read  in  any  modern  author,  "  two  to  speak 
truth  —  one  to  speak  and  another  to  hear."  He  must  be  very  little 
experienced,  or  have  no  great  zeal  for  truth,  who  does  not  recog- 
nize the  fact.  A  grain  of  anger  or  a  grain  of  suspicion  produces 
strange  acoustical  effects,  and  makes  the  ear  greedy  to  remark 
offence.  Hence  we  find  those  who  have  once  quarrelled  carry  them- 
selves distantly,  and  are  ever  ready  to  break  the  truce.  To  speak 
truth  there  must  be  moral  equality  or  else  no  respect ;  and  hence 
between  parent  and  child  intercourse  is  apt  to  degenerate  into  a 
verbal  fencing-bout,  and  misapprehension  to  become  ingrained 
.  .  .  and  wherever  a  person  fancies  himself  unjustly  judged,  he  at 
once  and  finally  gives  up  the  effort  to  speak  truth.  With  our 
chosen  friends,  on  the  other  hand,  and  still  more  between  lovers 
(for  mutual  understanding  is  love's  essence),  the  truth  is  easily 
indicated  by  the  one  and  aptly  comprehended  by  the  other.  A 
hint  taken,  a  look  understood,  conveys  the  gist  of  long  and  delicate 
explanations ;  and  where  the  life  is  known  even  yea  and  nay  be- 
come luminous.  In  the  closest  of  all  relations  —  that  of  a  love 
well  founded  and  equally  shared  —  speech  is  half  discarded,  like  a 
roundabout,  infantile  process,  or  a  ceremony  of  formal  etiquette ; 
and  the  two  communicate  directly  by  their  presences,  and  with 
few  looks  and  fewer  words  contrive  to  share  their  good  and  evil 
and  uphold  each  other's  hearts  in  joy.  —  Stevenson:  Virginihus 
Puerisque. 

In  expanding  an  idea,  bear  in  mind  the  uses  of  anecdote,  quota- 
tion, and  details.  Beware  of  additions  which  do  not  grow  naturally 
from  the  thought. 


302  Composition- Rhetoric. 


EXERCISE  130. 

Expand  the  following  by  changing  the  word  or  words  in 
italics  to  a  phrase  or  clause  of  equivalent  meaning.  Take 
care  that  the  added  words  shall  be  genuine  additions  to  the 
thought. 

1.  Macaulay's  essays  are  as  good  as  a  library:  they  make  an 
incomparable  vade-mecum  for  the  busy  man. 

2.  If  your  little  boy  came  to  you  for  fire-cracker  money,  you 
would  give  it  to  him  hesitatingly ;  and  seeing  it  fly  off,  though 
harmlessly,  in  fireworks,  you  would  have  some  idea  that  it  was 
wasted. 

3.  Earnestness  characterizes  the  manner  of  the  speaker,  and 
truthfulness  his  language. 

4.  His  delight  in  nature  was  deep,  continuous^  sometimes 
rapturous. 

EXERCISE  131. 

Add  relevant  words  to  the  close  of  each  of  the  following 
sentences  for  the  sake  of  fulness  of  sound :  — 

1.  Clara,  upon  heaving  the  thunder-clap,  which  sounded  like  the 
crack  of  doom,  jumped. 

2.  For  three  days  after  regaining  a  latitude  which  admitted  of 
plain  sailing  we  had  boisterous  weather  and  a  wild  sea,  but  an  un- 
clouded sky.  At  such  times  the  ocean,  in  its  ever-varying  forms  of 
beauty  and  changing  shades  of  prismatic  light  in  the  sunshine, 
attracts. 

3.  The  momentary  waves  raised  by  the  passing  breeze,  appar- 
ently born  to  die  on  the  spot  which  saw  their  birth,  leave  behind 
them  an  endless  progeny,  which,  reviving  with  diminished  energy 
in  other  seas,  visiting  a  thousand  shores,  reflected  from  each,  and 
perhaps  again  partially  concentrated,  go  on. 

4.  How  they  were  attacked,  how  they  resisted,  how  they  struck, 
how  they  were  encompassed,  how  they  thrust  back  those  who  were 
hurled  on  them  in  the  black  night,  with  the  north  sea-wind  like  ice 
upon  their  faces,  and  the  loose  African  soil  drifting  up  in  clouds 
around  them,  they  told. 


How  Much  to  Say.  308 


EXERCISE  132. 

Fill  in  details  at  the  places  indicated  in  the  following :  — 

There  has  been  no  period  of  time  in  which  wealth  has  been 
more  sensible  of  its  duties  than  now.  It  builds  hospitals.  [Tell 
other  things  that  it  does.]  One  of  the  advantages  of  accumulated 
wealth  and  of  the  leisure  it  renders  possible,  is  that  people  have 
time  to  think  of  the  wants  and  sorrows  of  their  fellows.  Thinking 
on  the  needs  of  the  poor  will  lead  the  rich  to  greater  benevolence 
th^ft-the  v^orld  has  yet  known.     [Other  results.] 

"iJWhen  we  see  what  a  wonderful  instrument  the  hand  is,  I  think 
we  are  great  fools  for  not  learning  to  use  it  better.  A  parrot  can 
make  a  use  of  his  beak  and  feet,  which  are  also  hands,  in  a  way 
that  puts  us  to  shame.  [Tell  what  a  dog  can  do  with  his  mouth 
and  fore  paws.]  Some  people  can  do  little  more  than  dress  and 
undress  themselves  and  bring  food  and  drink  to  the  mouth,  which 
does  the  rest.  Boys,  without  being  taught  except  by  other  boys, 
learn  to  use  feet  and  hands  in  many  ways,  and  they  amuse  them- 
selves and  learn  at  the  same  time.  [Tell  how  the  hands,  eyes,  and 
feet  are  educated  by  games  played  according  to  rules.]  I  hope  I 
shall  be  excused  if  I  say  that  boys'  play  is  sometimes  the  best 
thing  that  they  do  at  school. 


■^W 


EXERCISE  133. 

Interpret  one  of  the  "following  quotations,  and  comment 
on  the  thought,  bringing  out  fully  all  that  it  means  or  sug- 
gests to  you. 

1.  If  youth  is  not  right  in  its  conclusions  about  this  life,  there 
is  a  strong  probability  that  age  is  not  much  more  so. 
.  It  takes  two  to  make  a  quarrel. 

3.  Opinion  in  good  men  is  but  knowledge  in  the  making. 

4.  The  eye  is  the  great  instrument  of  acquiring  knowledge. 

5.  Writing  is  a  part  of  drawing. 

6.  In  the  savage  state,  robbery  stands  in  the  place  of  taxation. 

7.  Parting  is  a  kind  of  death. 

8.  Let  the  great  world  spin  forever  down  the  ringing  grooves  of 
change.  —  Tennyson  :  Locksley  Hall. 


^. 


^^^'^^^  CompositioU'RhetoriG. 


J^ 


;one  walls  do  not  a  prison  make, 
Nor  imji^ars  a  cage. 

^         jj       Lovelace:  To  AUhea  from  Prison. 

V  "    ^  ^  Who  overcomes 

By  force,  hath  overcome  but  half  his  foe. 

W-*"  >  ^       Milton  :  Paradise  Lost,  I,  648. 


W^'^ 


^H^: 


EXERCISE  134. 

"      Expand  the  following  according  to  the  directions  printed 
within  the  brackets  :  —  ,  j  , .  ,  oo^Trve.  \HHM  /Jua^iXslmJIu 

1.  I  do  not  believe  in  violent  changes.     [Expand  "  violent  "^to  a     . 

■  ■     .  clause.]     Kor  do  T  expect^i&fei^'^Ha^mt^^  MM  ir^^^^ 

'^^    other  vfords  at  greater  length.]     Things  in  pol^s^ori  [rfe|)e^tln^H 


^acft^  "^^iSn^tory    clfi!usq  'dr '  two    "things    which,"    etc.]    have    a 
very  firm  grip.     [Inserf  4  sentence,  beginning  "  ^riiey  hold  socVij^ 

r<^Wi-^^-^it;f^'*^6lft]     One  of  the  strongest  cements  of  society  [substitute  y^ 
for  "society"  another  expression  of  greater  length]  is  the  convic- 
tion of  mankind  that  the  state  of  things  into  wl^ich  they  are  born  j^ 
is  a  part  of  the  order  of  the  universe.,    f'liad 'a  comparison Y"  as 

Aa>^    natural  as,"  etc.]'    iiih  a  conviction  that  they  will  not  surrender  J 
^except  on  compulsion;    and  a  wise  society^further  charaet^/nze^ 

)j^  O^JWllSfeMy,"  "a  society  which,"^  etc.]  should  look  to  it  that  th^  W^ 
pulsion  be  noti  put  upon  them."     [Add  "  should  guard  against;    etclj 

"■■^^^"^^^^^"^r*iy5r&  Bro  many  others  think  that  dreaming  occurs 

\)iorily  between  sleeping  and  waking,  —the  stepping  of  the  soul  into 
or  out  of  the  land  of  f orgetf  ulness,  —  and  that  it  is  momentary  in 
its  essence  and  action,  though  ranging  over  a  lifetime  or  more.     [A 
poetical  quotation  illustrating  the  brevity  of  the  dream-period.] 
There  is  much  in  favor  of  this.     One  hopes  the  soul  [a  brief  quo- 
tation expressing  the  nimble,  ethereal  character  of  the  soul]  may 
sometimes  sleep  the  dreamless  sleep  of  health,  ^s,  well  as  its  tired 
drudge.  'W  C^.    ,  ,Vl...    ov.   -^^- ^'*  •  ,  ..  ;  a_c)jMKUM 
3.  Jt  is  a  beautiiul  morning  in  June,  —  so  beautiful  that  I  almost ,  CX)I 
fancy  myself  in  Spain.     The  tessellated  shadow  of  the  honeys uckle*rv\l 
lies  motionless  upon  the  floor,  as  if  it  were  a  figure  in  the  carpet  j^jj^tAX 
and  through  the  open  window  comes  the  fragrance  of  the  wild-  ^Aq. 
brier  and  the  mock-orange,  reminding  one  of  that  soft,  sunny  clime 


ft/yT^'^' 


How  Much  to  Say.  305 


^' 


where  the  very  air  is  laden,  like  the  bee,  with  sweetness,  and  the 
south  wind  [a  poetical  quotation  descriptive  of  the  south  wind]. 
The  birds  are  carolling  in  the  trees,  and  their  shadows  flit  across 
the  window  as  they  dart  to  and  fro  in  the  sunshine,  while  the  mur- 
mur of  the  bee,  the  cooing  of  doves  from  the  eaves,  and  the  whir- 
ring of  a  little  humming-bird  that  has  its  nest  in  the  honeysuckle, 
send  up  a  sound  of  joy  to  meet  the  rising  sun. 


\^j^^\ 


n 


^ 


EXERCISE  135. 

Study  the  following  closely  and  write  fully  what  it  sug- 
gests to  you.  Give  all  that  it  implies  as  well  as  all  that  it 
expresses. 

On  First  Looking  into  Chapman's  Homer. 

Much  have  I  travell'd  in  the  realms  of  gold. 
And  many  goodly  states  and  kingdoms  seen  : 
Round  many  westernjslands  have  I  been 

Which  bards  in  fealty  to  Apollo  hold. 

Oft  of  one  wide  expanse  had  I  been  told 

That  deep-brow'd  Homer  ruled  as  his  demesne  : 
\  Yet  did  I  never  breathe  its  puyre^serene 

\  Till  I  heard  Chapman  speak  out  loud  and  bold : 

Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies 
When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken ; 

Or  like  stout  Cortez  when  wdth  eagle  eyes 
He  stared  at  the  Pacific  —  and  all  his  men 

Look'd  at  each  other  with  a  wild  surmise  — 
Silent,  upon  a  peak  in  Darien .  —  Keats. 

[The  following  questions  will  be  found  suggestive :  What  were 
the  " realms  of  gold "  in  which  Keats  feigned  to  have  travelled? 
What  is  meant  by  "  western  islands,"  and  in  what  sense  are  they 
held  by  bards  in  fealty  to  Apollo  ?  Over  what  realm  can  Homer 
be  said  to  rule  ?  What  reason  for  calling  him  "  deep-browed  "  ? 
What  is  suggested  to  you  by  '^  pure  serene,"  and  how^  is  it  appro- 
priate as  applied  to  Homer's  poetry  ?  Tn  what  sense  do  the  verses 
in  Chapman's  Homer  "speak  out  loud  and  bold"?  Read  the 
following  from  Robertson's  History  of  A  merica,  which  was  one  of 


306  Composition-Rhetoric, 

Keats's  school-books,  and  consider  how  the  "wild  surmise"  of 
Balboa's  men  could  properly  be  compared  to  the  poet's  feelings 
on  first  seeing  Chapman's  translation  of  Homer  :  "  At  length  the 
Indians  assured  them  that  from  the  top  of  the  next  mountain  they 
should  discover  the  ocean  which  was  the  object  of  their  wishes. 
When,  with  infinite  toil,  they  had  climbed  up  the  greater  part 
of  that  steep  ascent,  Balboa  [not  Cortez :  Keats's  memory  played 
him  false]  commanded  his  men  to  halt,  and  advanced  alone  to  the 
summit,  that  he  might  be  the  first  who  should  enjoy  a  spectacle 
which  he  had  so  long  desired.  As  soon  as  he  beheld  the  South 
Sea  stretching  in  endless  prospect  below  him,  he  fell  on  his  knees, 
and,  lifting  up  his  hands  to  heaven,  returned  thanks  to  God,  who 
had  conducted  him  to  a  discovery  so  beneficial  to  his  country,  and 
so  honorable  to  himself.  His  followers,  observing  his  transports 
of  joy,  rushed  forward  to  join  in  his  wonder,  exultation,  and  grati- 
tude^!^    r^  / 

LESSON  37.  vJLUaJ* 

Condensation. 

A  process  the  direct  opposite  of  expansion  is  necessary 
when  writing  on  the  less  important  points  of  a  paragraph 
or  an  essay.  These  need  to  be  compressed  into  briefer  com- 
pass than  the  important  points.  One  way  of  condensing  is 
seen  in  the  following  paragraph,  in  which  the  writer  has 
reduced  a  sentence  to  a  participial  construction  attached 
to  the  next  sentence.  In  the  same  way  a  sentence  is  re- 
duced to  a  clause  or  phrase  and  attached  to  another  related 
sentence. 

Never  did  poet  have  a  truer  companion,  a  sincerer  spiritual 
helpmate,  than  Mr.  Bryant  in  his  wife.  Refined  in  taste^  and  ele- 
vated in  thought,  she  was  characterized  alike  by  goodness  and  gentle- 
ness. Modest  in  her  ways,  she  lived  wholly  for  him ;  his  welfare, 
his  happiness,  his  fame,  were  the  chief  objects  of  her  ambition. 
To  smooth  his  pathway,  to  cheer  his  spirit,  to  harmonize  every 
discordant  element  of  life,  were  purposes  for  the  accomplishment 
of  which  no  sacrifice  on  her  part  could  be  too  great. 


How  Much  to  Say,  307 

Sometimes  an  apt  quotation,  an  allusion,  or  a  proverb  may 
take  the  place  of  a  large  amount  of  explanatory  matter. 

An  eloquent  scholar  has  said,  that  ancient  literature  was  the 
ark  ill  which  all  the  civilization  of  the  world  was  preserved  during 
the  deluge  of  barbarism.  We  confess  it.  But  we  do  not  read 
that  Noah  thought  himself  bound  to  live  in  the  ark  after  the  del- 
uge had  subsided.  When  our  ancestors  first  began  to  consider  the 
study  of  the  classics  as  the  principal  part  of  education,  little  or 
nothing  worth  reading  was  to  be  found  in  any  modern  language. 
Circumstances  have  confessedly  changed.  Is  it  not  possible  that 
a  change  of  system  may  be  desirable?  —  Macaulay:  The  London 
University. 

Condensation  in  a  paragraph  or  essay  may  be  furthered 
by  cutting  out  the  parts  that  merely  explain,  or  connect,  or 
qualify  the  main  idea.  Such  parts  can  often  be  spared  with- 
out harm  to  the  intelligibility  of  the  whole. 

The  value  of  condensation  appears  when  we  wish  to  re- 
port for  the  benefit  of  one  who  has  not  read  it  the  principal 
ideas  of  a  book,  a  speech,  or  a  magazine  article.  In  this 
work  the  problem  is  to  find  the  important  thoughts  and  to 
report  them  with  the  same  relative  importance  which  they 
have  in  the  original.  The  danger  is  that  the  latter  part  will 
be  more  condensed  than  the  beginning.  All  parts  should 
be  condensed  on  the  same  scale.  The  following  shows  a 
condensation  of  a  portion  of  a  magazine  article :  — 


ORIGINAL. 

After  two  whole  generations  it  seems 
as  if  some  increase  of  genuine  reason- 
ableness of  thought  and  action  in  all 
classes  of  the  population  ought  to  be 
discernible.  Many  persons,  however,  fail 
to  see  in  the  actual  conduct  of  the  various 
classes  of  society  the  evidence  of  increas- 
ing rationality.  These  sceptical  observ- 
ers complain  that  people  in  general,  taken 


CONDENSATION. 

While  it  ought  seem- 
ingly to  be  one  of  the 
effects  of  education  to 
make  people  think  and 
act  more  reasonably, 
there  is  no  evidence  of 
increasing  rationality 
among  the  great  mass 
of  the  people.     They 


308 


Composition-Rhetoric, 


in  masses  with  proper  exclusion  of  excep- 
tional individuals,  are  hardly  more  reason- 
able in  the  conduct  of  life  than  they  were 
before  free  schools,  popular  colleges,  and 
the  cheap  printing-press  existed.  .  .  . 
They  complain  that  in  spite  of  every 
effort  to  enlighten  the  whole  body  of  the 
people,  all  sorts  of  quacks  and  impostors 
thrive,  and  that  one  popular  delusion 
or  sophism  succeeds  another,  the  best 
educated  classes  contributing  their  full 
proportion  of  the  deluded.  Thus  the 
astrologer  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  a  rare 
personage  and  usually  a  dependent  of 
princes ;  but  now  he  advertises  in  the 
popular  newspapers  and  flourishes  as 
never  before.  Men  and  women  of  all 
classes,  no  matter  what  their  education, 
seek  advice  on  grave  matters  from  clair- 
voyants, seers.  Christian  scientists,  mind- 
cure  practitioners,  bone-setters,  Indian  doc- 
tors, and  fortune-tellers.  —  C.  W.  Eliot: 
Wherein  Popular  Education  has  Failed, 
Forum,  14:  412. 


act  from  impulse,  pas- 
sion, prejudice,  rather 
than  upon  sober  reflec- 
tion, very  much  as 
people  did  before  free 
schools  were  invented. 
They  fall  a  prey  to  de- 
lusions, sophistry,  clap- 
trap, and  humbug,  as 
easily  as  ever,  and  the 
best  educated  classes 
contribute  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  deluded. 
Quacks  and  impostors 
of  every  kind  flourish 
as  luxuriantly  as  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  and 
have  the  advantage  of 
being  able  to  advertise 
in  cheap  newspapers. 
—  Calvin  Thomas  : 
Citizenship  and  the 
Schools,  The  Alumnus, 
2:  50. 


Professor  Jowett,  in  his  translations  of  Plato  and  Thucydi- 
des,  re-states  the  principal  ideas  of  the  text  in  brief  marginal 
notes.  The  following  selection  from  his  translation  of  Thu- 
cydides  will  show  the  skilfulness  of  his  condensation :  — 


TEXT. 

The  whole  army  now  fell  into  utter  disorder, 
and  the  perplexity  was  so  great  that  from  neither 
side  could  the  particulars  of  the  conflict  be  exactly 
ascertained.  In  the  daytime  the  combatants  see 
more  clearly ;  though  even  then  only  what  is  going 
on  immediately  around  them,  and  that  imperfectly 
—  nothing  of  the   battle  as  a  whole.     But  in  a 


MARGIN. 

All  now 
becomes 
confusion. 
Those  be- 
hind press  on 
those  before, 
who  are  al- 


Hotv  Much  to  Say. 


309 


nightly  engagement,  like  this  in  which  two  great      ready  turn- 
armies  fought  —  the  only  one  of  the  kind  which      ing  back, 
occurred  during  the  war  —  who  could  be  certain  of      The  moon- 
anything?     The  moon  was  bright,  and  they  saw      light,  the 
before  them,  as  men  naturally  would  in  the  moon-      dense 
light,  the  figures  of  one  another,  but  were  unable      masses,  the 
to  distinguish  with  certainty  who  was  friend  or      narrow 
foe.     Large   bodies   of  heavy-armed  troops,  both      space,  the 
Athenian   and  Syracusan,  were  moving  about  in      watchword, 
a  narrow   space ;    of   the   Athenians,    some   were      the  Psean, 
already  worsted,  while  others,  still   unconquered,      contribute  to 
were  carrying  on  the  original  movement.     A  great      the  rout, 
part  of  their  army  had  not  yet  engaged,  but  either      Friends  at- 
had  just  mounted  the  heights,  or  were  making  the      tack  friends, 
ascent ;  and  no  one  knew  which  way  to  go.     For      Many  throw 
in  front  they  were  defeated  already;   there  was      themselves 
nothing  but  confusion,  and  all  distinction  between      from  the 
the  two  armies  was  lost  by  reason  of  the  noise.      cliffs,  leaving 
The  victorious  Syracusans  and   their  allies,  who      their  arms 
had  no  other  means  of  communication  in  the  dark-      behind ; 
ness,  cheered  on  their  comrades  with  loud  cries  as      others  miss 
they  received  the  onset  of  their  assailants.     The      their  way  in 
Athenians  were  looking  about  for  each  other ;  and      the  dark  and 
every  one  who  met  them,  though  he  might  be  a      are  cut  off. 
friend  who  had  turned  and  fled,  they  imagined  to 
be  an  enemy.     They  kept  constantly  asking  the 
watchword  (for  there  was  no  other  mode  of  know- 
ing one  another)  and  thus  they  not  only  caused 
great  confusion  among  themselves  by  all  asking  at 
once,  but  revealed  the  word  to  the  enemy.     The 
watchword  of  the  Syracusans  was  not  so  liable  to 
be  discovered,  because,  being  victorious,  they  kept 
together,  and   were   more   easily   recognized.     So 
that  when  they  were  encountered  by  a  superior 
number  of  the  enemy  they,  knowing  the  Athenian 
watchword,  escaped;  but  the  Athenians  in  a  like 
casj^,  failing  to  answer  the  challenge,  were  killed. 
Most  disastrous  of  all  were  the  mistakes  caused  by 
the   sound   of  the  Fsean,  which,  the  same  being 


310 


Composition- Rhetoric, 


heard  in  both  armies,  was  a  great  source  of  per- 
plexity. For  there  were  in  the  battle  Argives, 
Corcyrseans,  and  other  Dorian  allies  of  the  Athe- 
nians, and  when  they  raised  the  Paean  they  in- 
spired as  much  alarm  as  the  enemy  themselves; 
so  that  in  many  parts  of  the  army,  when  the  con- 
fusion had  once  begun,  not  only  did  friends  terrify 
friends  and  citizens  their  fellow-citizens,  but  they 
attacked  one  another,  and  were  with  difficulty  dis- 
entangled. The  greater  number  of  those  who 
were  pursued  and  killed  perished  by  throwing 
themselves  from  the  cliffs ;  for  the  descent  from 
Epipolse  is  by  a  narrow  path.  The  fugitives  who 
reached  the  level  ground,  especially  those  who  had 
served  in  the  former  army  and  knew  the  neighbor- 
hood, mostly  escaped  to  the  camp.  But  of  the 
newly  arrived  many  missed  their  way,  and,  wan- 
dering about  until  daybreak,  were  then  cut  off  by 
the  Syracusan  cavalry  who  were  scouring  the  coun- 
try.-IyII,  44. 


To  condense,  omit  such  subordinate  ideas  as  can  be  spared,  and 
express  others  in  briefer  constructions.  Bear  in  mind  the  uses  of 
quotation,  allusion,  and  proverb.  In  condensing  a  long  article,  be 
careful  to  preserve  the  relative  importance  of  the  ideas. 


EXERCISE  136. 


Cut  out  of  the  following  as  many  of  the  words  as  can  be 
spared :  — 


You  and  I  ae'^tt  are  teaching  injin^aded  schools  ofTTo^small 
attendance.  We  therefore  need  some  time-saving  device,  and  also^^ 
some  source  of  ready  help.  For  we  have  burdened  ourselves  aft«— ' 
our  successors  atsr^^l  with  \^^  useless  and  avoidable  duties.  For 
example,  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of  forming  new  classes  to 
suit  the-coHditiror-o^  our  irregular  pupils,  instead  of  adapting  the 
irregular  pupils  to  classes  already  in  operation.     We  are  conse- 


How  Much  to  Say,  311 

quently  over-burdened  with  labor  and  gain  nothing  by  it.  We 
J^Hfiiave  our  time  consmngdjto  noimofit,  while  at-ibe-ofttne  time 
we  despair  over  the  0Gm\{k^iaiJ4(u\\{\\m  ul  afCtJlr^iTT'ornrrfeigses. 
Now,  thefl^*  I  see  no  remedy  so  long  as  we  continue  uUorty  to 
ignore  the  necessity  of  an  established  and  well-ordered  course  of 
study  which  shall  IjlroviHs^  be  permanent  from  year  to  year,  and 
uniform Jj^in  all  of  the  ungraded  schools  throughout  the  state. 
What  would  such  a  course  of  study  ensure  ?  First  of  all  aud-ioro*  - 
most~of^  ait,  it  would  introduce  regularity  of  classes  in  schools 
which  do  not  have  regularity  now.  In  the  second  place,  it  would 
furnish  the  teacher  with  a  plan  of  work  that  would  be  easy  to  fol- 
low. Again,  it  would  tend  to  prevent  the  teacher  from  favoring 
certain  studies  at  the  expense  of  other  studies,  and  this  too,  let  me  - 
<l^7  is  a  real  evil  in  many  country  schools  where  arithmetic,  being 
the  favorite  study  of  the  teacher,  receives  the  bulk  of  the  time  of 
the  school,  little...£lsfi— boift^-tattght.  Last,  but  not  least,  a  pupil 
coming  from  one  school  to  another  could  find  his  proper  place 
without  trouble  or  delay.  Also,  the  work  being  alike  in  all 
schools,  there  could  not  be  an  irregular  pupil  in  any  of  them. 


EXERCISE  137. 
Condense  the  following :  — 

Philatelists  must  in  future  content  themselves  with  real  speci- 
mens of  stamps,  the  law  having  declared  that  it  is  illegal  for  any 
one  to  possess  a  die  for  counterfeiting  them,  even  though  the  in- 
tention be  the  most  innocent  in  the  world.  Mr.  Upcott  Gill  had 
one  of  these  articles  for  imitating  a  Cape  of  Good  Hope  stamp, 
but  when  the  government  officials  summoned  him  to  the  Bow 
Street  Court,  Sir  John  Bridge  held  that  they  had  no  case,  as  the 
die  was  not  to  be  used  for  an  unlawful  purpose.  The  Court  of 
Queen's  Bench  has  decided  -  otherwise,  and  sent  Mr.  Gill  back  to 
the  magistrate  to  be  fined.  It  was  held  by  the  judges  of  the  higher 
tribunal  that  the  eagerness  of  philatelists  to  know  all  about  stamps 
and  to  gaze  on  imitations  of  what  they  do  not  possess  in  reality, 
is  not  an  excuse  for  the  possession  of  a  die,  and  the  reasonableness 
of  that  finding  will  hardly  be  disputed.  A  man  may  order  one  to 
be  made  in  all  innocence,  but  nobody  knows  into  whose  hands  it 


812  Composition-Rhetoric. 

may  ultimately  fall  for  nefarious  use.  In  Mr.  Gill's  case  there 
was,  of  course,  no  insinuation  that  his  motive  was  anything  except 
the  laudable  one  of  instructing  the  public,  but  this  is  a  kind  of 
education  at  which  the  law,  in  the  interests  of  the  national  revenue, 
looks  askance.  Under  these  circumstances  Sir  John  Bridge  merely 
inflicted  the  nominal  penalty  of  ten  shillings.  The  case  will  be 
interesting  to  the  large  army  of  philatelic  enthusiasts  as  defining 
limits  beyond  which  they  must  not  pass.  — London  Daily  Telegraph. 

'  Wliat  originally  constituted  a  right  to  be  in  good  society  in 
England  has  been  discarded.'!'  Birth  and  rank  count  for  nothing, 

/I      unless  they  bring  with  them  into  the  great  market  of  society  otheir 
I      claims  to  success ;  and  the  best  claim  to  be  a  leader  of  fashionable 
1      society  in  England  is  to  be  able  to  provide  the  greatest  amount  of 
I     amusement.^  Every  man  and  woman  are  expected  to  contribute 
1     their  mite  to  the  common  fund  of  amusement,  and  those  who  con' 
k   J      I    tribute  the  largest  amount  are  the  acknowledged  heads  of  society. 
£"        U/ It  is  impossible  that  it  should  be  otherwise;  for  agricultural  dis- 
j   tress  —  depreciation  in  the  value  and  rental  of  land — has  broken. 
I  down  the  territorial  aristocracy  of  England,  and  the  moneyed  aris- 
I  tocracy  has  taken  its  place.  5  The  growing  size  of  society,  the  lux- 
1  ury,  and  the  variety  of  amusements  it  offers,  are  some  of  the 
\indications  that  it  is  based  upon  wealth ;  for  such  a  society  could 
inever  have  come  into  existence  in  a  purely  aristocratic,  and  there- 
fore a  poorer,  community. 

Whether  it  is  an  ideal  state  or  not  is  hardly  a  matter  over  which 
'  we  need  agitate  ourselves.  That  it  is  much  more  amusing,  much 
more  interesting,  than  the  society  which  it  has  superseded  there 
can  be  no  doubt.  There  is  less  restraint,  more  sense  of  enjoyment, 
and  we  get  much  better  value  for  our  pains  and  money  than  in  the 
days  when  a  cold  exclusiveness  constituted  the  distinctive  mark  of  a 
good  but  very  dull  society.  It  may  seem  a  somewhat  sweeping  as- 
sertion to  say  that  there  is  not  such  a  thing  as  good  society  in  this 
Jin-de-siecle  time ;  but  there  is  certainly  none  in  the  sense  in  which 
our  predecessors  understood  it ;  and  could  they  but  look  for  a  mo- 
ment upon  modern  English  life,  they  would  be  amazed.  What  was 
simply  an  aristocratic  caste  has  been  swept  away,  and  the  hetero- 
geneous mass  which  now  calls  itseK  good  society  is,  at  any  rate, 
clever  and  sharp  enough  not  to  be  beguiled  by  any  will-o'-the-wisp, 


Eow  Much  to  Say.  313 

or  to  receive  any  one  who  does  not  possess  some  special  qualifica- 
tions to  be  enrolled  in  its  ranks.  —  London  Saturday  Review, 


EXERCISE  138. 

Eead  one  of  the  selections  from  the  list  in  Appendix  C. 
As  you  read  make  careful  note  of  the  leading  ideas ;  con- 
nect these  in  a  single  paragraph,  omitting  all  illustrations 
and  explanations.  .j__         *     ,  ■  1  i^      x    i -C  ^    » 


CHAPTER  VII. 

■WHAT  NOT  TO   SAY. 


LESSON  38. 
Agressions, 


There  is  always  a  tendency,  as  we  write,  to  forget  the 
excwt  topic  on  which  we  are  writing,  and  to  admit  to  a  place 
in  our  composition  sentences,  and  sometimes  even  whole 
paragraphs,  which,  while  they  may  have  something  to  do 
with  the  general  subject  on  which  we  are  writing,  have  little 
or  nothing  to  do  with  the  particular  part  or  phase  of  the 
subject  set  before  us  for  discussion.  It  is  hard  to  stick  to 
our  text.  We  are  apt  to  be  turned  aside  from  our  direct 
purpose  and  to  wander  in  a  long  digression  far  away  from 
the  topic.  We  stop  to  tell  a  story  only  remotely  connected 
with  our  theme,  or,  having  made  an  allusion  perhaps  fittingly 
enough,  we  explain  it  in  unnecessary  detail. 

The  following  paragraph  from  De  Quincey  illustrates  the 
most  frequent  violation  of  unity  —  including  matter  which 
should  be  dropped  altogether,  or  taken  out  and  organized 
by  itself. 

1.  What  reason  is  there  for  taking  up  this  subject  of  Joanna 
precisely  in  the  spring  of  1847  ?  2.  Might  it  not  have  been  left  till 
the  spring  of  1947;  or,  perhaps,  left  till  called  for?  3.  Yes,  but 
it  is  called  for ;  and  clamorously.  4.  You  are  aware,  reader,  that 
among  the   many  original  thinkers  whom  modern   France   has 

314 


What  Not  to  Say,  815 

produced,  one  of  the  reputed  leaders  is  M.  Michelet.  5.  All  these 
writers  are  of  a  revolutionary  cast ;  not  in  a  political  sense  merely, 
but  in  all  senses  ;  mad,  oftentimes,  as  March  hares  ;  crazy  with  the 
laughing-gas  of  recovered  liberty;  drunk  with  the  wine-cup  of 
their  mighty  revolution ;  snorting,  whinnying,  throwing  up  their 
heels  like  wild  horses  in  the  boundless  pampas,  and  running  races 
of  defiance  with  snipes,  or  with  the  winds,  or  with  their  own 
shadows,  if  they  can  find  nothing  else  to  challenge.  6.  Some  time 
or  other  I,  that  have  leisure  to  read,  may  introduce  you,  that  have 
not,  to  two  or  three  dozen  of  these  writers;  of  whom  I  can  assure 
yon  beforehand,  that  they  are  often  profound,  and  at  intervals  are 
even  as  impassioned  as  if  they  were  come  of  our  best  English 
blood.  7.  But  now,  confining  our  attention  to  M.  Michelet,  we  in 
England  who  know  him  best  by  his  w^orst  book,  the  book  against 
priests,  etc. — know  him  disadvantageously.  8.  That  book  is  a 
rhapsody  of  incoherence.  9.  But  his  "  History  of  France  "  is  quite 
another  thing.  10.  A  man,  in  whatsoever  craft  he  sails,  cannot 
stretch  away  out  of  sight  when  he  is  linked  to  the  windings  of 
the  shore  by  towing-ropes  of  history.  11.  Facts  and  the  conse- 
quences of  facts  draw  the  writer  back  to  the  falconer's  lure  from 
the  giddiest  heights  of  speculation.  12.  Here,  therefore, — in  his 
*'  France,"  —  if  not  always  free  from  flightiness,  if  now  and  then 
off  like  a  rocket  for  an  airy  wheel  in  the  clouds,  M.  Michelet,  with 
natural  politeness,  never  forgets  that  he  has  left  a  large  audience 
waiting  for  him  on  earth,  and  gazing  upward  in  anxiety  for  his 
return  :  return,  therefore,  he  does.  13.  But  history,  though  clear 
of  certain  temptations  in  one  direction,  has  separate  dangers  of 
its  own.  14.  It  is  impossible  so  to  write  a  history  of  France,  or  of 
England  —  works  becoming  every  hour  more  indispensable  to  the 
inevitably  political  man  of  this  day  —  without  perilous  openings 
for  error.  15.  If  I,  for  instance,  on  the  part  of  England,  should 
happen  to  turn  my  labors  into  that  channel,  and  (on  the  model  of 
Lord  Percy  going  to  Chevy  Chase) 

"  A  vow  to  God  should  make 
My  pleasure  in  the  Michelet  woods 
Three  summer  days  to  take," 

probably,  from  simple  delirium,  I  might  hunt  M.  Michelet  into 
delirium  tremens.     16.  Two  strong  angels  standby  the  side  of  his- 


316 


Composition'Rhetoric, 


tory,  whether  French  history  or  English,  as  heraldic  supporters : 
the  angel  of  research  on  the  left  hand,  that  must  read  millions  of 
dusty  parchments,  and  of  pages  blotted  with  lies ;  the  angel  of 
meditation  on  the  right  hand,  that  must  cleanse  these  lying  records 
with  fire,  even  as  of  old  the  draperies  of  asbestos  were  cleansed,  and 
must  quicken  them  into  regenerated  life.  17.  Willingly  1  acknowl- 
edge that  no  man  will  ever  avoid  innumerable  errors  of  detail; 
with  so  vast  a  compass  of  ground  to  traverse,  this  is  impossible ; 
but  such  errors  (though  I  have  a  bushel  on  hand,  at  M.  Michelet's 
service)  are  not  the  game  I  chase  ;  it  is  the  bitter  and  unfair  spirit 
in  which  M.  Michelet  writes  against  England.  •  18.  Even  that,  after 
all,  is  but  my  secondary  object ;  the  real  one  is  Joanna  the  Pucelle 
d'Orleans  for  herself. 


Condensed  and  stripped  of  digressions,  what  the  para- 
graph stands  for  is  this :  "  One  reason  for  taking  up  this  sub- 
ject of  Joanna  now,  is  that  M.  Michelet,  in  his  History  of 
France,  while  treating  of  this  same  subject,  writes  against 
England  in  a  bitter  and  unfair  spirit.  That,  however,  is 
only  a  secondary  reason ;  the  real  one  is  Joanna  the  Pucelle 
d'Orleans  for  herself."  Where  and  how  De  Quincey  has  di- 
gressed from  this  theme  is  shown  in  the  following  analysis. 


I. 

Main  Theme. 

1-3.  Subject  of  Jo- 
anna called  for. 
4.  Michelet 


7,  8.  Michelet 

9.  Michelet's  His- 
tory of  France  a  good 
book. 


II. 

Slight  Digression. 


a  leading  French 
thinker. 


known  in  England  by 
his  worst  book. 


III. 

Serious  Digression. 


6,  6.  All  original 
thinkers  of  modem 
France  revolutionary, 
but  profound  and  im 
passioned. 


What  Not  to  Say. 


317 


12.  Michelet'sIZiis- 
tory  adheres  in  the 
main  to  facts. 


10, 11.  History  does 
not  admit  of  wild 
flights  of  speculation. 


13,  14.  History  has 
openings  for  error. 

15.  De  Quincey,  if 
he  wished,  could  find 
errors  in  Michelet's 
History. 

16.  The  two  angels 
that  stand  by  the  side 
of  history. 

17.  No  historian  will 
ever  avoid  error. 


17.  De  Quincey's 
c»bject  of  attack  is 
the  bitter  and  unfair 
spirit  in  which  Mich- 
elet  writes. 

18.  Even  that  is  a 
secondary  object ;  the 
primary  object  is  Jo- 
anna for  herself. 


The  matter  in  the  first  column  is  clearly  pertinent  to  the 
theme  of  the  essay,  as  well  as  to  the  theme  of  the  paragraph. 
That  in  the  second  column  might  be  retained  without  seri- 
ous offence  against  unity.  But  the  matter  in  the  third 
column  is  so  remotely  connected  with  the  theme  of  the 
paragraph,  and  some  of  it  so  little  pertinent  even  to  the 
theme  of  the  essay,  that  it  must  be  regarded  as  seriously 
digressive.  A  considerable  part  of  the  matter  in  the  third 
column  might  be  used  to  form  a  separate  paragraph  on  the 
general  character  of  Michelet's  History  of  France,  were  such 
a  paragraph  desirable. 

The  following  paragraph,  after  the  first  sentence,  is  a 


318  Composition- Rhetoric, 

series  of  digressions,  each  receding  a  little  farther  from  the 
proper  subject  of  remark  than  its  foregoer.  The  relation 
of  the  digressions  to  the  topic-sentence  and  to  one  another  is 
shown  by  the  degree  of  indention.^ 

But  what  must  we  do  with  the  sciences  in  schools  —  I  mean 
the  elementary  part  of  them  ? 

For  I  hope  that  the  philosophers  know  a  fact  which  I  have 
already  laid  down,  —  that  the  amount  which  we  can  teach  in  a 
school  to  the  ordinary  kind  of  boys,  that  is,  the  very  great 
majority,  is  not  much. 

If  the  philosophers  do  not  know  this,  they  are  unfit  to 
discuss  the  question,  and  are  not  worth  arguing  with. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  a  small  number  of  clever 
boys  in  a  school,  who  can  learn  anything,  and  will 
learn  something,  whether  you  teach  them  or  not. 

I  write  as  a  man  should  write  who  deals  with 
realities  and  not  with  dreams  —  who  is  looking 
after  the  great  body  of  boys,  and  not  the  very 
stupid  or  the  very  clever. 

Writers  who  fail  to  secure  unity  in  their  compositions 
may  be  helped  by  the  following  suggestions  :  — 

1.  Make  a  careful  plan  before  writing.  One  may  see 
reasons  for  modifying  and  revising  the  "plan  as  the  writing 
proceeds,  and  one  should  never  hesitate  to  do  this,  but. 
having  a  plan  to  follow  and  trying  to  follow  it  closely  will 
help  greatly  to  avoid  offences  against  unity. 

2.  When  the  composition  is  completed,  test  each  para- 
graph by  phrasing  in  a  single  sentence  the  main  idea  for 
which  the  paragraph  stands. 

3.  Challenge  suspicious  sentences,  and  make  them  give  an 
account  of  themselves.  Ask  persistently  such  questions  as 
"  What  business  have  these  sentences  in  the  paragraph  ?  " 

1  This  method  of  indicating  digressive  subordination  is  adopted  from 
Moulton's  Literary  Study  of  the  Bible,  Appendix  IV,  **  On  the  Use  of  the 
Digression  in  the  Book  of  Wisdom." 


What  Not  to  Say,  319 

"  What  would  be  lost  if  I  should  strike  them  out  ?  "  Espe- 
cially be  on  your  guard  against  the  temptation  to  retain 
"  fine_paaaages/' 

4.  If  digressions  are  discovered,  consider  whether  the 
digressive  matter  should  be  dropped  altogether,  or  should 
be  taken  out  and  organized  by  itself. 

To  secure  unity,  stick  to  your  text. 


EXERCISE  139. 

What  part  of  the  following  paragraph  is  on  a  different 
subject  from  that  announced  in  the  topic-sentence  at  the 
beginning  ? 

/  It  is  not  requisite  for  the  honor  of  Joanna,  nor  is  there,  in  this 
place,  room  to  pursue  her  brief  career  of  action.  ^^  .That,  though 
wonderful,  forms  the  earthly  part  of  her  story :  the  spiritual  part 
is  the  saintly  passion  of  her  imprisonment,  trial,  and  execution. 
I  It  is  unfartuuate,  therefore^for  Southey's  "Joan  of  Arc"  (which, 
however,  should  always  be  regarded  as  a  juvenile  effort),  that,  pre- 
cisely when  her  real  glory  begins,  the  poem  ends. >t But  this  hmita- 
tion  of  the  interest  grew,  no  doubt,  from  the  constraint  inseparably 
attached  to  the  laws  of  epic  unity.  )  Joanna's  history  bisects  into 
two  opposite  hemispheres,  and  both  could  not  have  been  presented 
to  the  eye  in  one  poem,  unless  by  sacrificing  all  unity  of  theme,  or 
else  by  involving  the  earlier  half,  as  a  narrative  episode,  in  the 
latter ;  which,  however,  might  have  been  done,  for  it  might  have 
been  communicated  to  a  fellow-prisoner,  or  a  confessor,  by  Joanna 
herself.  |bt  is  sufficient,  as  concerns  this  section  of  Joanna's  life, 
to'^ay  thait  she  fulfilled,  to  the  height  of  her  promises,  the  restora- 
tion of  the  prostrate  throne.  ~/  France  had  become  a  province  of 
England ;  and  for  the  ruin  of  both,  if  such  a  yoke  could  be  main- 
tained^ Dreadful  pecuniary  exhaustion  caused  the  English  energy 
to  droop ;  and  that  critical  opening  La  Pucelle  used  with  a  corre- 
sponding felicity  of  audacity  and  suddenness  (that  were  in  them- 
selves portentous)  for  introducing  the  wedge  of  French  native 
resources,  for  rekindling  the  national  pride,  and  for  planting  the 


il 


320  Composition- Rhetoric, 

(Jauphin  once  "^iriore  upon  his  >feet.  (When  Joanna  appeared,  he 
had  been  on  the  point  of  giving  up  the  struggle  with  the  Eng- 
lish, distressed  as  they  were,  and  of  flying  to  the  south  of  France. 
She  taught  him  to  blush  for  such  abject  counsels.]':  She  liberated 
Orleans,  that  great  city,  so  decisive  by  its  fate  for  the  issue  of  the 
war,  and  then  beleaguered  by  the  English  with  an  elaborate  appli- 
cation of  engineering  skill  unprecedented  in  EuropeVVEntering  the 
city  after  sunset,  on  the  29th  of  April,  she  sang  a  mass  on  Sunday, 
May  8,  for  the  entire  disappearance  of  the  besieging  force.^c;  On  the 
29th  of  June,  she  fought  and  gained  over  the  English  the  decisive 
battle  of  Patay ;  on  the  9th  of  July,  she  took  Troyes  by  a  coup- 
de-main  from  a  mixed  garrison  of  English  and  Burgundians ;  on 
the  15th  of  that  month,  she  carried  the  dauphin  into  Rheims;  on 
Sunday  the  17th,  she  crowned  him ;  and  there  she  rested  from  her 
labor  of  triumph.'  ,>  All  that  was  to  be  done  she  had  now  accom- 
plished :  what  remained  was  —  to  suffer, 

EXERCISE  140. 

In  the  following,  two  unrelated  paragraphs  are  wrongfully 
united.     Where  does  the  second  begin  ? 

An  amusing  story  is  told  in  Gibraltar  of  an  English  soldier  who 
lost  his  heart  to  an  officer's  daughter  on  the  voyage  hither  from 
England.  Impatient  to  behold  his  sweetheart  again,  he  set  out 
for  her  house  the  very  evening  of  the  landing,  but  unluckily 
entered  the  outer  gate  just  as  the  sunset  gun  closed  the  inner 
one,  so  the  importunate  loveig«ent  the  night  miserably  pacing 
the  pavement  between  the m1!#Xlibr altar  has  fared  strangely  in 
the  hands  of  fortune.  Dedicated  by  the  colonizing  Moors  with 
an  inscription  in  the  castle  mosque  to  the  "  God  of  Peace,  the 
great  Pacificator,"  it  has  become  the  stronghold  of  war,  and  even 
the  quiet  Franciscan  convent  has  evolved  into  the  governor's  palace, 
where  balls  and  functions  make  it  gay  and  festive.  —  Cosmopolitan, 
]l9:624) 

EXERCISE  141. 

Make  of  the  following  a  careful  analysis  by  the  method 
suggested  at  the  beginning  of  this  lesson.     Ee-write  with 


-)   ^ 


What  Not  to  Say,  321 

due  regard  for  unity,  making  as  many  paragraphs  as  you 
think  necessary. 

!  If  the  happy  invention  of  printing  had  been  known  from  the 
beginning,  we  might  have  had  the  experience  of  men  of  olden 
times,  who  lived  ten  times  as  long  as  I  have  lived,  recorded  in 
folios  without  end  or  octavos  endless,  for  it  matters  little,  when  a 
book  has  no  end,  in  what  shape  the  volumes  are.  J^^And  it  may  be  ,  i 
supposed  that  the  experience  of  these  aged  men  would  have  beeni 
ten  times  as  great  as  mine,  and  their  books  ten  times  as  wise;  bui^^ 
this  I  take  the  liberty  of  saying  would  be  a  very  unsafe  conclusion.  ^ 
For  I  ain  pretty  nmch  of  the  mind  of  the  Roman  emperor,  Marcus 
Aurelius,  who  says  that  a  man  who  has  lived  forty  years  has  seen 
everything  that  is  to  be  seen  in  the  world.J^  I  think  indeed  that  he 
was  only  forty  years  old  when  he  wrote  this,  and  that  if  he  had  SJ^k, 
written  it  in  the  last  years  of  his  life,  he  would  have  allowed  a  (j 
little  longer  time  for  seeing  everything-T^  My  own  judgment  is 
that  I  have  lived  long  enough  to  see  all  that  a  man  can  see  in  the 
world,  and  partly  for  this  reason  that  men  after  my  age  see  very 
little  ;  certainly  I  have  lived  long  enough  to  hear  all  that  is  said 
and  a  great  deal  more  than  is  worth  listening  to.fo  This  mention 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  leads  me  to  make  a  remark  which  the  reader 
ought  to  bear  in  mind  all  through  this  book,  and  I  make  it  now 
without  considering  whether  it  comes  in  the  right  place  or  not, 
maintaining,  as  I  do  most  stoutly,  that  a  good  remark  is  always  , 
good,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  those  interested  persons  who 
speak  of  a  wise  saying  being  spoiled  by  being  put  in  the  wrong 
place  ;  which  piece  of  criticism  is  bred  of  mere  envy,  such  persons 
knowing  very  well  that  they  have  nothing  to  say  that  is  worth  the 
trouble  of  remembering."!  On  the,  contrary,  as  I  have  a  good  many 
good  things  to  say,  and  as  they  come  into  my  head  quicker  than 
they  can  run  off  at  the  end  of  my  pen,  I  am  compelled  to  let  them 
come  as  they  list,  and  it  is  better  that  they  should  jostle  one  an- 
other a  little  and  come  in  no  order  at  all  than  that  the  world 
should  lose  any  of  them.«  For  I  verily  believe,  and  I  say  it  in  seri- 
ous sadness,  that  big  books  are  written  nowadays,  in  which  a  man 
shall  not  find  from  beginning  to  end  one  single  clear  idea,  one 
remark  worth  pocketing  and  keeping,  or  one  single  fact  that  he 
did  not  know  before,  but  a  great  many  false  facts,  and  a  great 


322  Composition-Rhetoric, 

many  true  facts  put  in  a  false  light .^  I  might  go  on  to  mention 
various  books  of  this  kind,  and  I  might  even  tell  their  names,  if  I 
were  spiteful  enough  and  if  I  did  not  think  more  of  doing  good 
myself  than  exposing  those  who  do  harm.KBut  to  cut  this  matter 
short  and  not  to  do  like  so  many  who  run  away  from  their  subject 
as  if  they  had  forgotten  it  or  were  ashamed  of  it,  I  was  speaking 
of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  of  what  he  said  about  experience  J'  I  now 
say  that  this  good  emperor  actually  says  what  I  say  that  he  says ; 
and  so  all  through  this  book,  when  I  tell  the  reader  that  any  wise 
man  has  said  anything  he  may  believe  that  I  tell  him  the  truth ! 
jV  And  I  ask  him  to  believe  me  because  I  tell  him  so,  and  not  to 
doubt  because  he  does  not  see  an  exact  reference  to  each  passage 
with  book  and  chapter  named,  and  sometimes  Greek  and  Latin 
and  other  languages  printed  with  occasional  mistakes;  and  how 
^^.  much  trouble  this  has  caused  the  printer,  and  whether  it  has  not 
sometimes  almost  brought  an  oath  even  out  of  a  pious  printer,  I 
rU^  will  not  say.'S  But  one  thing  I  will  say  —  and  this  is  the  way  of 
^  ^i  saying  a  thing  forcibly  —  one  thing  I  will  say,  which  is  this:  I 
.^/^  know  from  my  own  experience,  and  my  own  experience  is  the  best 
part  of  my  knowledge,  that  these  learned  references  are  as  often 
wrong  as  right  in  the  books  of  all  the  second-hand  dealers  in  learn- 
ing; and  I  say  it  with  great  grief,  that  these  poachers  on  other 
men's  lands  are  not  near  so  useful  as  old  clothesmen,  for  these  fel- 
lows carry  at  least  a  genuine  article  in  their  bags  and  have  paid 
for  it,  be  it  ever  so  tattered  and  worn ;  and  they  are  very  much  on 
the  increase,  I  mean  the  poachers ;  and  I  know  nothing  short  of 
an  act  of  Parliament  that  is  likely  to  stop  them,  unless  people 
should  give  over  buying  their  books,  which  I  am  disposed  to  think 
would  come  to  the  same  thing  as  not  allowing  them  to  be  printed,  y 
^*  I  have  another  thing  to  say  and  then  I  have  done  with  this  matter/- 
and  it  is  this,  —  that  the  learned  authors  to  whom  these  learned 
writers  of  our  days  refer  often  contradict  them,  from  which  comes 
the  conclusion,  that  our  fine  scholar  either  never  looked  at  the 
passage  to  which  he  refers  or  that  he  could  not  understand  it. 
•^  Nothing  of  this  kind  will  be  found  hereJ^I  shall  not  quote  any 
learned  man  without  looking  into  his  book ;  and  as  to  my  under- 
standing what  the  book  says,  I  trust  that  no  reader  will  have  got 
so  far  in  this  address  without  placing  full  confidence  in  me.  '  I 
have  already  told  the  reader  that  I  am  a  learned  man,  and  I  am 


What  Not  to  Say,  823 

not  ashamed  of  it,  and  I  will  not  deny  it;  and  before  he  has  read 
through  this  book,  I  hope  that  I  shall  have  convinced  him  that  I 
am  a  man  of  sense,  which  is  rather  better  than  being  a  learned 
man ;  or  at  any  rate  if  it  is  not  better,  I  will  say  this,  that  learning 
without  sense,  if  the  thing  is  possible,  is  not  worth  half  as  much 
as  learning  and  sense  together;  and  lastly  I  earnestly  wish  the 
reader  to  believe,  and  I  shall  try  to  convince  him  of  that  too,  that 
I  am  an  honest  man,  and  I  think  this  is  worth  more  than  learning 
and  sense  together,  though  I  think  that  an  honest  man  should 
have  some  sense,  and  for  my  part  I  would  not  trust  his  honesty  if 
I  could  not  trust  his  sense. 

i 

LESSOlsr  39. 

Incoherence, 

Closely  connected  with  the  question  of  unity,  how  to 
stick  to  the  text,  is  the  question  of  coherence,  how  to  make 
the  parts  of  a  composition  hang  together.  Incoherence  in 
a  composition  results  most  often  from  a  lack  of  careful  plan- 
ning at  the  outset.  Successive  paragraphs  in  an  incoherent 
composition  do  not  show  logical  relationship  to  one  another, 
and  the  same  may  be  true  of  successive  sentences  within  a 
paragraph.  When  a  sentence  is  unduly  prolonged,  it  is 
quite  likely  to  lack  coherence ;  the  parts  do  not  hang  to- 
gether well. 

Upon  the  return  from  Cales  without  success,  though  all  the 
ships,  and,  upon  the  matter,  all  the  men  were  seen,  (for  though 
some  had  so  surfeited  in  the  vineyards,  and  with  the  wines,  that 
they  had  been  left  behind,  the  generosity  of  the  Spaniards  had 
sent  them  all  home  again ;)  and  though  by  that  fleet's  putting  in 
at  Plymouth,  near  two  hundred  miles  from  London,  there  could 
be  but  very  imperfect  relations,  and  the  news  of  yesterday  was 
contradicted  by  the  morrow ;  besides  that  the  expedition  had  been 
undertaken  by  the  advice  of  the  parliament,  and  with  an  universal 
approbation  of  the  people,  so  that  nobody  could  reasonably  speak 
loudly  against  it ;  yet,  notwithstanding  all  this,  the  ill  success  wasi 


324  Composition-Ithetoric. 

heavily  borne,  and  imputed  to  ill  conduct;  the  principal  officers 
of  the  fleet  and  army  divided  amongst  themselves,  and  all  united 
in  their  murmurs  against  the  general,  the  Lord  Viscount  Wimble- 
don; who,  though  an  old  officer  in  Holland,  was  never  thought 
equal  to  the  enterprise. —  Clarendon:  History  of  the  Rebellion, 
1,70. 

The  same  danger  which  besets  the  paragraph,  of  forget- 
ting the  exact  topic  and  putting  in  something  irrelevant, 
besets  the  sentence  also. 

In  the  United  States  every  male  child  that  is  born  has  a  chance, 
though  not  an  equal  chance,  for  some  are  naturally  more  gifted 
than  their  fellows  with  a  genius  for  success,  though  our  Constitution 
says  they  are  not,  of  becoming  the  foremost  person  in  his  city,  in 
his  state,  or  in  the  community  at  large. 

There  is  also  the  danger  of  over-crowding  a  sentence  with 
details  which,  though  perhaps  relevant,  are  so  numerous  as 
to  make  the  thought  hard  to  follow.  The  third  sentence 
below  is  over-crowded  with  details  about  Dryden,  which 
would  better  have  been  omitted  or  taken  out  and  organized 
into  a  sentence  by  themselves. 

1.  Davies  is  remembered  for  his  philosophical  poem,  the  earliest 
of  the  kind  in  the  language.  2.  It  is  written  in  rhyme,  in  the 
common  heroic  ten-syllable  verse,  but  disposed  in  quatrains.  3.  No 
other  writer  has  managed  this  difficult  stanza  so  successfully  as 
Davies :  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  requiring  the  sense  to  be  in 
general  closed  at  certain  regularly  and  quickly  recurring  turns, 
which  yet  are  very  ill  adapted  for  an  effective  pause ;  and  even  all 
the  skill  of  Dryden  has  been  unable  to  force  it  from  a  certain  air 
of  monotony  and  languor,  —  a  circumstance  of  which  that  poet 
may  be  supposed  to  have  been  himself  sensible,  since  he  wholly 
abandoned  it  after  one  or  two  early  attempts.  4.  Davies,  how- 
ever, has  conquered  its  difficulties;  and,  as  has  been  observed, 
"  perhaps  no  language  can  produce  a  poem,  extending  to  so  great 
a  length,  of  more  condensation  of  thought,  or  in  which  fewer  lan- 
guid verses  will  be  found." 


What  Not  to  Say,  825 

The  attempt  to  have  a  sentence  say  too  much  frequently 
leads  to  confusion^  making  the  main  idea  hard  to  lind^ 


Of  the  French  town,  properly  so-called,  in  which  the  product  of 
successive  ages,  not  without  lively  touches  of  the  present,  are 
blended  together  harmoniously  with  a  beauty  specific  —  a  beauty 
cisalpine  and  northern,  yet  at  the  same  time  quite  distinct  from 
the  massive  German  picturesque  of  Ulm,  or  Freiburg,  or  Augsburg, 
and  of  which  Turner  has  found  the  ideal  in  certain  of  his  studies 
of  the  rivers  of  France,  a  perfectly  happy  conjunction  of  river 
and  town  being  of  the  essence  of  its  physiognomy  —  the  town  of 
Auxerre  is  perhaps  the  most  complete  realization  to  be  found  by 
the  actual  wanderer. 

This  confusion  not  infrequently  shows  itself  in  involved 
clauses,  —  wheels  within  wheels,  —  which  are  to  be  avoided. 

7  In  the  crowd  near  the  door  there  was  found  upon  the  ground  a 

V  hat,  in  the Jiiside  whereof  there  was  sewed  upon  the  crown  a  papeiv 
Am)  i^^hi<^h  was  writ  four  or  five  lines  of  that  declaration  made  by 
i"  the  house  of  commons  in  which  they  had  styled  the  duke  an 
\  enemy  to  the  kingdom,  and  under  it  a  short  ejaculation  or  two 
^     towards  a  prayer.  —  Clarendon  :  History  of  the  Rebellion,  I,  51. 

The  involution  of  clauses  in  the  foregoing  sentence  may 
be  indicated  thus  :  — 

(a)  There  was  found  a  hat 

(&)  in  the  inside  whereof  there  was  a  paper. 

(c)  in  which  was  w^rit  four  or  five  lines  of  that  decla- 
ration made  by  the  house  of  commons 
(d)  in  which  they  had  styled  the  duke  an  enemy 
to  the  kingdom. 

There  may  be  so  many  things  mentioned  in  a  sentence 
that  the  reader  cannot  tell  just  what  the  seatence-topic  is. 
Such  a  sentence  is  said  to  be  heterogeneous. 

His  [King  Charles's]  inclination  to  his  new  cup-bearer  [Villiers] 
disposed  him  to  administer  frequent  occasion  of  discoursing  of  the 


tesi     <i^lj-iM.XA^ 


V) 


326  Composition- Rhetoric, 


court  of  France,  and  the  transactions  there,  with  which  he 'had 
been  so  lately  acquainted,  that  he  (iould  pertinently  enlarge  upon 
that  subject,  to  the  king*s  great  delight,  an(|  to^the  gaining  the 
esteem  and  value  of  all  the  standers-by^jjio  Jiimseff :  which  was  a 
thing  the  king  was  well  pleased  with,  t^  afcted  very  few  weeks 
upon  this  stage,  when  he  mounted  higher ;  and  being  knighted, 
without  any  other  qualification,  he  was  at  the  same  time  made 
gentleman  of  the  bedchamber  and  knight  of  the  order  of  the 
garter  J  and  in  a  short  time  (very  short  for  such  a  prodigious 
ascent)  he  was  made  a  baron,  a  viscount,  an  earl,  a  marquis,  and 
became  lord  high  admiral  of  England,  lord  warden  of  the  cinque 
ports,  master  of  the  horse,  and  entirely  disposed  of  all  the  graces  of 
the  kingj  in  conferring  all  the  honors  and  all  the  offices  of  three 
kingdoms,  without  a  rival;  in  dispensing  whereof,  h^  Vfas  guided 
more  by  the  rules  of  appetite  than  of  judgment ;  and  so  exalted 
almost  all  of  his  own  numerous  family  and  dependants,  whose 
greatest  merit  was  their  alliance  to  him,  which  equally  offended 
the  ancient  nobility,  and  the  people  of  all  conditions,  who  saw  the 
flowers  of  the  crown  every  day  fading  and  withered ;  whilst  the 
demesnes  and  revenue  thereof  were  sacrificed  to  the  enriching  a 
private  family  (how  well  soever  originally  extracted)  scarce  ever 
heard  of  before  to  the  nation;  and  the  expenses  of  the  court  so 
vast  and  unlimited,  that  they  had  a  sad  prospect  of  that  poverty 
and  necessity,  which  afterwards  befell  the  crown  almost  to  the  ruin 
of  it.  —  Clarendon  :  History  of  the  Rebellion,  I,  18. 

A  sudden  and  unexpected  change  of  subject  in  a  sentence 
is  a  hindrance  to  cohesion. 

As  he  paused  on  the  crest  of  the  hill,  looking  foolishly  about 
him  and  wondering  where  his  tormentor  could  have  hidden  her- 
self, a  low  faint  tittering  was  heard,  which  seemed  to  come  from 
the  interior  of  the  earth. 

Coherence  will  be  promoted  by  making  the  principal 
clause  read  _as  follows:  "He  heard  a  low,  faint  tittering, 
which  seemed  to  come  from  the  interior  of  the  earth." 

One  needs  to  be  cautious  about  appending  a  phrase  or 
clause  to  a  sentence  as  if  by  an  afterthought. 


What  Wot  to  Say,  327 

Though  he  stood  on  the  very  spot  where  Leonidas  and  his  hand- 
ful of  Greeks  had  repulsed  the  Persian  hosts  and  stayed  the  tide  of 
Oriental  barbarism,  he  could  think  of  nothing  but  his  lost  umbrella 
and  he  could  call  up  no  sentiment  more  noble  than  a  desire  to  be 
seated,  clothed  and  in  his  right  mind,  in  a  first-class  hotel  before  a 
good  hot  dinner,  which  is  not  an  uncommon  experience  for  tourists. 

Th  words  of  reference,  especially  the  pronouns,  need 
careful  attention.  The  writer  should  see  that  every  one  of 
his  words  of  reference  points  with  unerring  accuracy  to  the 
word  or  expression  to  which  he  wishes  to  refer.  Common 
errors  are  the  use  of  their  for  its  ^  (a  word  in  the  singular 
preceding)  and  thei^e  is  for  there  are  (a  word  in  the  plural 
following). 

1  A  fortune  of  ^118,000  is  hanging  on  the  grammatical  construction  of  a 
single  word,  in  the  superior  court  of  San  Francisco.  A  jury,  among  whom 
there  is  not  a  school-teacher  or  any  one  claiming  to  be  an  authority  on 
grammar,  had,  up  to  a  week  ago  [Jan.  12,  1896],  devoted  12  days  to  the 
consideration  of  the  point,  and  at  last  account  the  case  was  still  unsettled. 
The  learned  judg  and  some  half  dozen  high-priced  lawyers  had  been  help- 
ing to  disentangle  the  intricacies  of  the  problem. 

The  prize  depends  on  the  exact  meaning  of  the  word  "their"  as  it 
appears  in  a  clause  in  a  contract.  It  is  plain  that  the  word  is  a  pronoun, 
standing  for  an  antecedent  noun  in  the  sentence,  but  there  are  two  such 
nouns,  and  the  point  is  as  to  which  it  refers.  This  is  the  $118,000 
sentence : — 

And  at  their  option  the  Adams  company  is  to  have  the  use  of  all  the 
machinery  and  coal  hoisting  appliances  now  in  use  by  the  Southern  com- 
panies. 

The  Southern  companies  referred  to  have  the  money  which  is  at  stake, 
and  if  the  jury  decide  that  the  *'  their  "  refers  to  them  they  will  keep  it. 
If  they  hold  that  "  their  "  refers  to  the  Adams  company,  then  the  Adams 
company  will  get  it.  The  sentence  occurs  in  a  contract  by  which  the 
Adams  company  was  to  unload  all  the  coal  ships  of  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad  company  for  five  years.  The  Adams  company  owned  machinery 
for  unloading  the  coal,  but  it  broke  down,  and  then  the  Southern  Pacific 
company's  machinery  was  used,  the  Adams  company  claiming  the  right 
to  use  it  by  virtue  of  the  clause  quoted.  After  the  contract  had  run  six 
months  the  Southern  Pacific's  machinery  also  broke  down,  and  the  Adams 
company  alleged  that  the  Southern  people  ought  to  repair  it.     The  South- 


328  Composition- Rhetoric. 

In  the  following  the  writer  has  been  careful  to  use  the 
word  "  it "  to  refer  to  but  one  thing  throughout  the  para- 
graph. 

If  there  is  such  a  thing  as  a  prose  poem,  the  grandest  example 
thereof  is  in  our  language :  it  is  Carlyle's  French  Revolution.  In 
conception  it  is  Epic ;  in  vocabulary  Cyclopic,  in  execution  Titanic. 
It  stands  alone.  It  is  strange,  marvellous,  sohtary.  It  has  nothing 
about  it  that  is  exemplary  or  propagative ;  it  may  be  admired,  but 
it  cannot  be  imitated.  It  has  no  advice  for  the  student  but  to 
wonder  and  stand  aloof.  It  is  and  must  remain  unique;  prolific 
it  is  not,  belonging  to  no  species ;  it  is  a  lusus  naturce,  a  strange 
and  happy  sport,  a  chanceling  in  Nature.  —  Earle  :  English 
Prose,  165. 

The  main  idea  of  a__paragi:aph  is  kept  prominent,  and 
coherence  thus  helped,  by  repeating  it  Irt'erally  or  in  syn- 
onymous expressions  at  various  points  in  the  paragraph. 
In  the  following  paragraph,  for  example,  Webster,  desiring 
to  keep  attention  fixed  upon  the  idea  "  the  value  of  learning, 

ern  objected  and  insisted  that  as  long  as  it  used  the  machinery  the  Adams 
company  should  keep  it  in  order.  The  trouble  thickened,  and  finally  the 
Southern  company  turned  the  Adams  company  out  and  got  another  con- 
cern to  unload  the  coal.  Then  the  Adams  company  brought  suit  to  recover 
$118,000,  the  profit  which  would  have  been  made  had  the  contract  run  its 
agreed  length. 

It  is  said  that  the  Southern  Pacific  company's  lawyer  did  not  see  the 
possibilities  in  the  queer  bit  of  grammar  until  long  after  litigation  had 
been  begun.  It  was  admitted  in  the  first  answer  to  the  suit,  that  the 
Adams  company  had  the  option  of  using  the  Southern  Pacific  company's 
machinery.  But  the  latter  company  now  rests  the  entire  case  on  the  con- 
tention that  the  word  "  their  "  meant  the  Southern  companies  and  not  the 
Adams  company.  In  the  sentence  under  dispute  appear  the  words  "  Adams 
company  is,"  and  the  Southern  companies  claim  that  the  word  **  company  " 
is  therefore  written  in  the  singular  sense  and  the  word  "  their  "  cannot 
apply  to  it.  If  the  writer  had  meant  it  to  apply  to  the  Adams  company, 
he  would  have  used  the  word  **its"  instead  of  "their."  The  other  side 
claims  that  the  word  "their"  must  refer  to  the  Adams  company  because 
the  latter  is  the  nearest  noun  to  the  disputed  pronoun.  —  San  Francisco 
Examiner, 


What  Not  to  Say.  329 

especially  of  classical  learning/'  proceeds  as  follows :  (1)  the 
idea  of  learning  in  general  is  carried  from  sentence  to 
sentence  by  means  of  the  synonymous  expressions  ^^litera- 
ture/' "  learning/'  "  literature,  ancient  as  well  as  modern/' 
and  the  allied  expression  "  learned  men " ;  (2)  the  idea  of 
classical  learning  is  similarly  carried  on  by  literal  repeti- 
tion of  the  words  "  classical  learning/'  and  by  the  synony- 
mous expression  "scholarship/'  and  the  allied  expression 
" scholars."  (3)  The  pronoun  "it."  is  used  to  carry  on  now 
one  now  the  other  of  these  ideas.  In  the  illustration  the  first 
series  of  reference  words  is  put  in  small  capitals,  the  second 
in  italics,  and  the  word  "  it "  is  in  small  capitals  or  italics 
according  as  it  takes  the  place  of  the  first  or  of  the  second. 

Literature  sometimes  disgusts,  and  pretension  to  it  much 
oftener  disgusts,  by  appearing  to  hang  loosely  on  the  character, 
like  something  foreign  or  extraneous,  not  a  part,  but  an  ill-adjusted 
appendage;  or  by  seeming  to  overload  and  weigh  it  down  by  its 
unsightly  bulk,  like  the  productions  of  bad  taste  in  architecture, 
where  there  is  massy  and  cumbrous  ornament  without  strength  or 
solidity  of  column.  This  has  exposed  learning,  and  especially 
classical  learning^  to  reproach.  Men  have  seen  that  it  might  exist 
without  mental  superiority,  without  vigor,  without  good  taste,  and 
without  utility.  But  in  such  cases  classical  learning  has  only  not 
inspired  natural  talent ;  or,  at  most,  it  has  but  made  original  feeble- 
ness of  intellect,  and  natural  bluntness  of  perception,  something 
more  conspicuous.  The  question,  after  all,  if  it  be  a  question,  is, 
whether  literature,  ancient  as  well  as  modern,  does  not 
assist  a  good  understanding,  improve  natural  good  taste,  add 
polished  armor  to  native  strength,  and  render  its  possessor,  not 
only  more  capable  of  deriving  private  happiness  from  contem- 
plation and  reflection,  but  more  accomplished  also  for  action  in 
the  affairs  of  life,  and  especially  for  public  action.  Those  whose 
memories  we  now  honor  were  learned  men  ;  but  their  learning 
was  kept  in  its  proper  place,  and  made  subservient  to  the  uses  and 
objects  of  life.  They  were  sc/ioZ«rs,  not  common  nor  superficial; 
but  their  scholarship  was  so  in  keeping  with  their  character,  so 


330 


Composition-Rhetoric, 


blended  and  inwrought,  that  careless  observers,  or  bad  judges,  not 
seeing  an  ostentatious  display  of  it,  might  infer  that  it  did  not 
exist;  forgetting,  or  not  knowing,  that  classical  learning  in  men 
who  act  in  conspicuous  public  stations,  perform  duties  which  exer- 
cise the  faculty  of  writing,  or  address  popular,  deliberative,  or 
judicial  bodies,  is  often  felt  where  it  is  little  seen,  and  sometimes 
felt  more  effectually  because  it  is  not  seen  at  all.  —  Webster  : 
Adams  and  Jefferson. 

Coherence  is  helped  by  employing  what  is  known  as  the 
"  ,gcho "  from  sentence  to  sentence  or  from  -paragraph  to 
paragraph.^  Compare  the  following,  noticing  how  much 
more  closely  the  "^echo  "  words  (here  italicised)  are  brought 
together  in  the  second  column  than  in  the  first. 


The  old  Greek  citizen  founded 
cities  in  his  settlements  beyond 
the  sea,  cities  free  and  indepen- 
dent from  the  beginning.  Let 
us  now  see  what  has  been  founded 
by  the  modern  European  colo- 
nist, subject  of  a  kingdom.  He 
has  founded  settlements  of  vari- 
ous kinds  in  different  cases; 
but  he  has  nowhere  founded 
cities  free  and  independent  like 
the  Greek  and  Phoenician  be- 
fore him.  He  has  indeed 
founded  cities  in  one  sense,  vast 
and  mighty  cities,  busy  seats 
of  art  and  industry  and  com- 
merce, but  not  cities  in  the 
elder  sense,  cities  independent 
from  their  birth,  cities  that  are 
born  the  political  equals  of  the 
mightiest  kingdoms. 


The  old  Greek  citizen,  in  his 
settlements  beyond  the  sea^ 
founded  cities,  cities  free  and  in- 
dependent from  the  beginning. 
Let  us  now  see  what  the  modern 
European  colonist,  subject  of  a 
kingdom,  has  founded.  He  has 
founded  settlements  of  various 
kinds  in  different  cases;  but  he 
has  nowhere  founded  free  and 
independent  cities  like  the  Greek 
and  Phoenician  before  him. 
Cities  indeed  in  one  sense  he 
has  founded,  vast  and  mighty 
cities,  busy  seats  of  art  and  in- 
dustry and  commerce,  but  not 
cities  in  the  elder  sense,  cities 
independent  from  their  birth, 
cities  that  are  born  the  political 
equals  of  the  mightiest  king- 
doms. —  Freeman. 


1  See  J.  M.  Hart,  Handbook  of  English  Composition,  pp.  14,  31. 


What  Not  to  Say,  331 

Coherence  is  also  helped  by  a  careful  use  of  words  of 
explicit  reference,  words  which  point  clearly  and  accurately 
to  certain  other  words  before  or  after.  The  principal  words 
of  this  kind  are  conjunctional  and  demonstrative  words  and 
phrasesj  such  as  further,  on  the  contrary,  moreover,  nor,  hut, 
however,  still,  after  what  has  been  saicL  fotJMsjreasoii,  so  too, 
in  this  manner,  therefore,  first,  secondly,  lastly,  the  one  —  the 
Qth^,  and  the  relative  and  demonstrative  pronouns. 

Omit  or  re-organize  any  part  of  your  composition  which  does  not 
hang  together  with  the  rest.  Make  each  sentence  stand  for  some 
one  idea.  Attend  carefully  to  the  outward  signs  of  coherence,  such 
as  reference-words  and  repetitions. 

EXERCISE  142. 

Point  out  the  words  of  reference  in  the  following :  — 

One  of  the  most  graceful  poetical  writers  of  the  reign  of  James  I 
is  William  Drummond,  of  Hawthornden,  near  Edinburgh ;  ajid  he 
is  further  deserving  of  notice  as  the  first  of  his  countrymen,  at 
least  of  any  eminence,  who  aspired  to  write  in  English.  He  has 
left  us  a  quantity  of  prose  as  well  as  verse ;  thq  foriaer  very  much 
resembling  the  style  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney  in  his  Arcadia,  —  thsu 
latter,  in  manner  and  spirit,  formed  more  upon  the  model  of 
Surrey,  or^ather  upon  that  of  Petrarch  and  the  other  Italian  poets 
whom  Surrey  and  many  of  his  English  successors  imitated.  I^o 
early  English  imitator  of  the  Italian  poetry,  however,  has  excelled 
Drummond,  either  in  the  sustained  melody  of  his  verse,  or  in  its  rich 
vein  of  thoughtful  tenderness. 


EXERCISE  143.      A/  .^^^UL  "O^  V^V/  ^ 

In  the  following  paragraph  are  four  different  subjects  of 
remark :  a,  "  several  pious  individuals  '^ ;  b,  improvement 
of  the  condition  of  criminals ;  c,  the  new  prisons ;  d,  the  old 
prisons.     These  are  denoted,  as  often  as  they  occur  in  the 


UriJ^>unK  :  -  ^  '^^>^  (>4^^  III  CAjuyua^/l^ 
332  Composition-IthetoHa.'- 

paragraph^  by  tiie  letters  a,  5,  c,  and  c?  respectively.  Re-write 
the  paragraph,  substituting  for  these  letters  proper  words 
and  phrases  of  explicit  reference.  Take  care  to  introduce 
some  variety  into  the  reference-words,  and  see  that  the 
thought  grows  in  repetition. 

Some  years  ago  several  pious  individuals  midertook  to  meliorate 
the  condition  of  the  prisons.     The  public  was  excited  by  the,state-4  | 
ments  which  a  put  forward,  and  ^'became  a-^we3?y  popular  twAiTV 
taHiig.     Xevv  prisons  were  built;  and,  for  the  first  time,  the-'idFa  ^^ 
oih  formed  a  part  of  prison  discipline.     But  &,  in  which  the  public 
had  taken  so  hearty  an  interest,  and  which  the  exertions  of  the 
citizens  had  irresistibly  accelerated,  could  not  be  completed  in  a 
moment.     While  c  were  being  erected  (and  it  was  the  pleasure  of 
/;  V     the^  majority  c  should  be  terminated  with  all  possible  celerity), 
^k/    i^i' existed,  which  still  contained  a  great  number  of  olfenders.     d 
became  more  unwholesome  and  more  corrupt  in  proportion  as  c 
were  beautified  and  improved,  forming  a  contrast  which  may  be 
readily  i^iiderstood.     The   majority  was  so  eagerly  employed   in 
founding  c  tluit  d  were  forgotten  ;  and  as  the  general  attention  was 
diverted  to  c,  the  care  which  had  hitherto  been  bestowed  upon  d    fj    \ 
ceased.     The  salutary  regulations  of  discipline  were  first  relaxed,  ^^^ 
IV  and  afterwards  broken ;  so  tmit  in  tlie  immediate  neighborhood  of 

jp^      c,  d  might  be  met  with.  ^    . 

EXERCISE  144.     ^ 

Examine  the  following  sentences  closely  for  unity  and 
coherence.  Ee- write  or  amend  to  avoid  violations  of  unity 
and  coherence.  ' 

If  you  had  known  when  you  writ  ^  your  letter  the  satisfaction 
I  have  to  hear  from  you,  you  would  not  have  given  yourself  the 
trouble  to  have  made  so  many  excuses  t^^J^  for  it  \  and  though  I 
hope  my  sister  will  never  have  more  occasion  to  make   you  her 

1  This  letter  is  by  the  Princess  Mary,  wife  of  William  of  Orange.  The 
form  "writ"  for  ** wrote"  was  in  general  use  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries. 


secretary,  yet  that  you  will  sometimes  write,  wlnoll.  whenever  you 

do  iljVill  jsfe  with  great  pleasm-e  tc^e  both  for  your  onvjj  sake  and     *^     .   ^ 

my  sister  Isabella,  that  1  may  hear  how  she  does,  wlii(;li  will  Ix; 

the  greatest  joy  that  can  be  to  me  when  I  hear  she  is  well,  and 

otherwise  a  very  great*  affliction  ;  for  though  she  is  so  little  as  not 

to  be  sensible  of  the  love  I  have  for  her,  yet  I  cannot  help  telling. 'Vx^  y< 

it  to  you,  and  desir^  you  to  b6  very  VA 'assured 'that  for  your-xT- ''r 

'  selM  ShaH  always  ihave  great' kindness  for  you,  and  be  ever  jouv^/"-^^ 

affectionate  friend,  ^.^  /,  , 

I  {  Mary.      Uj^ 

Having  passed  ^ife  all  the  winter,\imtil  about  the  latter,  end 
of  January,  without  any  such  memorable  accident  as  I  shall  think—- 
fit  to  set  down  particularly,  I  took  my  leave  of  the  French  King,    : 
Queen  Margaret,  and  the  nobles  and  ladies  in  both  courts;    at    -  i(\JW 
which  time  the  Princess  of  Conti  desired  me  to  carry  a-  scarf  into       .  .  - 
England,  ayd  preseni;  it  to  Queen  Anne  on  hor^pa^t,  w^hich  Wing'  ^^^^ 
axicep^ed-,  n^«fif  and  Sir  Thomas  Lucy  (whose  second  I  had  been 
twice  in  France,  against  two  cavaliers  of  our  nation,  wh^ry^-ifere- 
hindered  to  fight  with  us  in  the  field  wdiere  we  attended  them), 
^^^^ase^came  on  our  way  as  far  as  Dieppe,  in  Norman dy^-imd  there 
took  ship  about  f the  .beginning  of  ^^bruary^ /wSaes>^a*Turious  ^ 
storm  arose,  tKat  with  vei-y  great  daiigei'  we  were  at  sea  alf  night. 

The  master  of  ovir  ship  lost  both  the  use  of  his  compass  andj 
reason  ;  for  *Kit  knowing  whither  he  was  carried  by  the  tempest. 


the  help  he  had  was  by  the  lightnings,  which  t 
very  frequently  that  night,  terrified  him,  yet  gave  the  adv^ttag 
sometimes  to- discover  whether  we  were  upon  our  coast^'to  wnic 
he  thought,  by  the  course  of  his  glasses,  we  were  near  approached ; 
and  now  towards  day  we  found  ourselves,  by  gjfeat  providence  of 
G-od,  within  view  of  Dover,  to  which  the  master  of  our  ship  did 
make.  The  men  of  Dover,  rising  by  times  in  the  morning  to  see 
whether  any  ship  were  coming  towards  them,  w^ere  in  great  num- 
bers upon  shore,  a|  believing  the  tempest,  which  had  thrown  down 
barns  and  trees  near  the  town,  might  give  them  the  benefit  of 
some  wrreck,  i£..pogohahoD^ny-ship  -w^re  driven  thitherwards. 

We  coming  thus  fn  extreme  danger  straight  upon  the  pier  of 
Dover,  which  stands  out  in  the  sea,mnraiip  was  unfortunately  split 
against  it;  the  master  said,  ^^Mes  arnis,  nous  sommes  perdus,''  or, 
"  My  friends,  we  are  cast  away ;  "  when  myself,  who  heard  the  ship 


r\jt^ 


334  Composition-Rhetoric, 

crack  against  the  pier,  and  then  found,  by  the  master's  words,  it 
was  time  for  every  one  to  save  themselves,  if  they  could\  got  out  of 
my  cabin  (though  very  sea-sick),  and,  climbing  up  the  mast  a  little 
way,  drew  my  sword  and  flourished  it ;  they  at  Dover  having  this 
sign  given  them,  adventurecrlh  a  shallop  of  six  oars  to  relieve  us, 
which,  b^^g^jcbikS  With  great  danger  to  the  side  of  our  ship,  I.  got 
into  it  first,  with  my  sword  in  my  hand,  and  called  for  Sir  Thomas 
■Lucy,  saying  that  if  any  man  offered  to  get  in  before  him  I  should 
resist  him  with  my  sword;  whereupon  a  faithful  servant  of  his 
taking  Sir  Thomas  Lucy  out  of  thB-  cabin,  who  was  half  dead  of 
sea-sickness,  put  him  into  my  arms»  wht^rti  after  I  had  received, 
I  bade  the  shallop  make  away  for  shore,  and  the  ratlier  thut  I  saw 
another  shallop  comiijg  to  relieve  us;  when  a  post  from  France, 
wHo  carried  letters,  finiirig'  the  ship  still  rent  more  and  more, 
aSlventured  to  leap  from  the  top  of  our  ship  into  the  shalloj^ 
^^*^e,*ialling  fortunately  on  some  of  the  stronger  timber  of  the 
boat,  and  not  on  the  planks,  which  he  mijst  needs  have  broken, 
and  so  sunk  us  had  he  fallen  upon  them,  escaped,' ti^gethexLjfiith 
us  two,  tAto  the  laijcj.     \      [^    ,       , 

I  must  confess,  myself,  as  also  the  seamen  that  were  in  the 
shallop,  thought  once  to  have  killed  htm  "for  this  desperate  at- 
tempt ;  but  finding"^  lic/'ifarm  followed,  we  escaped  together  unto 
the  land,  from  whence  we  sent  more  shallops,  and  so.  m^^de  means 
to  save  both  men  and  horses  that  were  in  the  sjjipi  which  yet  itseli ' 
was  wholly  split  and  cast  away,  insomuch  that,|^  pity  to  the  mas- 
X  ter,  Sir  Thomas  Lucy  and  myself ^'ave  £30  towards  hi^  loss,  wh^ich 
•yet  was  not  so  great  as  we  thought,  since  the  tide  now  ebbing,' he 
recovered  the  broken  parts  of  his  ship. 


EXERCISE  145. 

In  chapter  23,  volume  1,  of  James  Bryce's  American  Com- 
monwealthy  on  the  interpretation  of  the  Constitution,  the 
introduction  ends  with  this  sentence,  which,  lays  down  the 
plan  of  the  whole  chapter :  — 

"There  are  three  points  that  chiefly  need   discussion: 

(I)  the  authorities  entitled  to  interpret  the  Constitution, 

(II)  the  main  principles  followed  in  determining  whether 


What  Not  to  Say.  335 

or  no  the  Constitution  has  granted  certain  powers,  (III)  the 
checks  on  possible  abuses  of  the  interpreting  power."  "^ 

The  chapter  is  an  admirable  illustration  of  the  way  in 
Avhich  coherence  is  secured.  Following  are  the  beginnings 
and  some  of  the  endings  of  the  paragraphs.  Study  them 
closely  and  answer  the  questions  at  the  close. 

1.  1.   To  whom  does  it  belong  to  interpret  the  Constitution? 

--------    the  Supreme  Federal  court. 

2.  Where  the  Federal  courts  have  declared  the  meaning  of  a 
law,  every  one  ought  to  accept  and  guide  himself  by  their  deliver- 
ance. 

3.  There  are  also  points  of  construction  on  which  every  court 
will  refuse  to  decide     ------_-.     These  points  are 

accordingly  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  executive  and  legislative 
powers. 

4.  It  is  therefore  an  error  to  suppose  that  the  judiciary  is  the 
only  interpreter  of  the  Constitution. 

5.  The  above  is  the  doctrine  now  generally  accepted  in  America. 
But  at  one  time  the  Presidents  claimed  the  much  wider  right  of 
being  entitled  to  interpret  the  Constitution  for  themselves    -    -    -. 
Majorities  in  Congress  have  more  than  once  claimed  for  themselves 
the  same  independence.    --------If  the  latter  have 

not  used  this  freedom  tostretch  the  Constitution  even  more  than  they 

a.  D.  I  he  tonstitution  Aas  oeeri  expanuea  by  construction  m  two 
ways.     -    -    -    -    _>>-    -    _     This  is   one   way.     The  other  is 

7.  Questions  of  the  above  kinds  sometimes  arise  as  questions 
of  interpretation  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term. 

8.  N'ow  the  doctrines  laid  down  by  Chief -Justice  Marshall  may 
be  summed  up  in  two  propositions. 

9.  Firsts  every  power  alleged  to  be  vested  in  the  National  gov- 
ernment, or  any  organ  thereof,  must  be  affirmatively  shown  to 
have  been  granted.     -------- 

10.  Secondly.  When  once  the  grant  of  a  power  by  the  people 
to  the  iSTational  government  has  been  established,  that  powder  will 
be  construed  broadly.     --------     Qq^  school  of 


336  Composition-Rhetoric, 

statesmen  urged  that  a  lax  construction  would  practically  leave 
the  States  at  the  mercy  of  the  I^^ational  government  -  _  _  -. 
It  was  replied  by  the  op£osite  school  that    ------    -. 

11.  This  latter  contention  derived  much  support  from  the  fact 
that  there  were  certain  powers    --------    not  men- 
tioned in  the  Constitution     --------so  obviously 

incident  to  a  National  government  that  they  must  be  deemed  to 
be  raised  by  implication.     For  instance    -----_-_. 

12.  The  three  lines  along'^trrciT'ifAis  development  of  the  implied 
powers  of  the  government  has  chiefly  progressed,  have  been  those 
marked  out  by  the  three  express  powers  of  taxing  and  borrowing 
money,  of  regulating  commerce,  and  of  carrying  on  war.  -  -  - 
The  executive  and  the  majority  in  Congress  found  themselves 
obliged  to  stretch  this  [the  war]  power    ------_-. 

13.  The  courts  have  occasionally  gone  evenjurther  afield. 

14.  The  ali^}22£=^ii^mLaned  instances  of  development  have  been  worked 
out  hy  the  courts  of  law.  But  others  are  due  to  the  action  of  the 
executive,  or  of  the  executive  and  Congress  jointly.     Thus,  in  1803, 


15.  The  best  way  to  give  an  adequate  notion  of  the^Qxtent^o 
which  the  outlines  of  the  Constitution  have  been  filed  up  by  interpreta- 
tion and  construction  would  be  to  --------  enu- 
merate the  decisions. 

III.  16.  We  notv  come  to  the  third  question :  How  is  the  interpreting 
authority  restrained  ? 

17.  The  answer  is  two-fold.     In  the  first  place    -----. 

18.  In  the  second  place     --------". 

19.  A  singular  result  of  the  importance  of  constitutional  interpre- 
tation in  the  American  government  may  be  here  referred  to.     It  is  tM&rm 
that  the  United  States  legislature  has  been  very  largely  occupied 
in  purely  legal  discussions. 

20.  A  father  consequence  of  this  habit  is  pointed  out  by  one  of  the 
most  thoughtful  among  American  constitutional  writers.  Legal  issues 
are  apt  to  dwarf  and  obscure  the  more  substantially  important 
issues  of  principles  and  policy    --------. 

21.  "The  English  legislature,"  says  Judge  Hare,  "is  free  to 
follow   any  course  that  will  promote   the  welfare  of  the   State 
--------.     In  the  United  States,  on  theother  hand^ 

the  question  primarily  is  one  of  power    --------. 


What  Not  to  Say,  337 

22.  The  interpretation  of  the  Constitution  has  at  times  become 
so  momentous  as  to  furnish  a  basis  for  the  formation  of  political 
parties;  ---_-___  Constitutional  interpretation 
was  a  pretext  rather  than  a  cause,  a  matter  of  form  rather  than  of 
substance. 

23.  The  results  were  both  good  and  evil.     They  were  good  in 
so  far  as--------.    They  were  evil    ------ 

in  cultivating  a  habit  of  casuistry    ---_--_-. 

24.  Since  the  Civil  War  there  has  been  much  less  of  this  casu- 

'  in———  II     n 
istr]^,     ________     the  Broad  Construction  view  of 

the  Constitution  having  practically  prevailed. 

(a)  What  expressions  in  paragraph  5  serve  to  prepare  for 
the  second  main  division  ? 

(b)  What  words  at  the  end  of  paragraph  1  are  repeated 
at  the  beginning  of  paragraph  2  ?  Find  other  instances  in 
the  subsequent  paragraphs  of  this  device  for  binding  para- 
graphs together. 

(c)  Explain  the  relationship  to  what  precedes  or  what 
follows  which  is  expressed  by  the  words  "  also  "  and  "accord- 
ingly;" in  paragraph's ;  the  word  "therefore"  in  paragraph 
4;  "above,"  "at  one  time,"  "the  same,"  in  paragraph  5; 
"this,"  in  6;  "now,"  in  8 ;  "first,"  in  9 ;  "secondly,"  "one," 
"  opposite,"  in  10 ;  "  this  latter  contention,"  "  for  instance," 
in  11 ;  "  this  development,"  in  12 ;  "  even  further,"  in  13 ; 
"  above-mentioned,"  "  others,"  "  thus,"  in  14 ;  "  the  extent," 
etc.,  in  15  ;  " now,"  in  16  ;  " result,"  "this,"  in  19 ;  "  further," 
in  20 ;  "  on  the  other  hand,"  in  21 ;  "  this  casuistry,"  in  24. 


APPENDIX  A. 

DIRECTIONS   FOR   PREPARING  MANUSCRIPT. 

1.  Use  only  black  ink,  the  blacker  the  better. 

2.  Write  on  one  side  of  the  sheet  only. 

3.  Leave  the  margin  blank  for  the  teacher's  corrections. 

4.  Write  as  legibly  as  you  can,  avoiding  flourishes  and  curlicues. 

5.  Put  the  title  on  the  first  line,  and  to  show  what  it  is,  under- 
line it  with  three  straight  lines  or  one  wavy  line.  Leave  one  blank 
line  between  the  title  and  the  body  of  the  essay. 

6.  By  taking  pains  as  you  write,  avoid  the  necessity  of  erasures 
and  interlineations.  If  corrections  must  be  made,  make  them 
neatly.  To  strike  out  a  word  draw  a  horizontal  line  through  it, 
but  do  not  enclose  it  in  parentheses.  In  making  additions,  use  the 
caret. 

7.  Indent  for  a  paragraph  at  least  one  inch.  Beware  of  indent- 
ing where  no  paragraph  is  intended. 

8.  Except  at  the  end  of  a  paragraph,  avoid  a  noticeable  blank 
space  at  the  end  of  a  sentence.     (See  Fig.  2,  page  341.) 

9.  Leave  the  sheets  of  your  manuscript  flat.  Do  not  fold  them ; 
do  not  fasten  them  together,  or  turn  down  the  corners ;  above  all, 
do  not  roll  them. 

10.  Write  your  name  and  the  number  of  the  page  in  the  upper 
right-hand  corner  of  each  sheet.^ 

11.  In  making  an  outline,  or  skeleton,  or  analysis,  follow  the 
form  of  outline  given  on  page  274  of  this  book.  Do  not  disfigure 
the  page  by  using  "braces." 

12.  Locate  your  quotations  by  giving  the  author's  name,  the 
name  of  the  book,  the  number  of  the  volume,  and  the  page. 

1  For  more  detailed  instructions,  the  teacher  is  referred  to  the  Rhetoric  Tablet^ 
published  by  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 

339 


340 


Composition-Rhetoric, 


^uia.  (dJjL  Up^^Aa 


■■  J.rxfj^i  /t*ii  'Vi 


■aiu^j  .(t*u  ^iA/m.ar/[r 


M 


tAV  a/ 


ijuJj  AH^< 


:  Jli. 


M^Ay^A  Jn/A    r^n^//  jA/i,  cruJi/, 


JJiA^iAv  AcMmv, 


'Mj    cMjrrrin  ^aJm/A,  J^jj 


yOjjlAAJ    ft^/. 


I 


..cU-Ju. 


M£/  Aa. 


,f7A/i/:i(Ajyjj^ty  i/ij 


irKcrJu  Mf/  iamaL 


1      7w 


'jb^jy    Jfjnl^/  in  A))  A   MnAj' 


L 


iM/r\£  CjoJjJi 


Jw  cJii 


.^rtHJj    lAHm.(njJ'j 


LCAU  Utti 


>A  1/MtI.fnjt  y[tjJ?jAA.q  -nAyiHXJj,  I>-(aaaJi  It  A.    fjr 


UUyCjnAjj\r^jA.afjuy^JlArUJL(JAjtJllhfLypmA    ^(Mj    Jn 


J^JM/ld  aA 


kiAJuniL 


JuL. 


mjj.'wi.fi. 


\Mjhj  (K.  ' 


iM^  (nAmi  f. 


t 


JLn 


AA   h  .  -winJciy  tMij 


^ALciinAi  JM. 


AjlJLll 

41 


(ii,d,y  —  (2/  A 


pJ/o^rh 


AAVii  i^uJiAi  Ji^rmJy 


fJ/iiMAj  -vi/nAr 


1 


JAl 


f 


uAlA 


Ji^it  tLi.  hUnixAj^j  pAxj^rMhjn/\nL  iraLiii   oi   JML 


Lam-  ax 


nM/2/M/:it, 


tn 


d\,MA 


InHW   f/'/LU. 


[Alt  Jmj    i/Unt 


t 


uauL 


il 


JL 


T 


tcuL 


JScjA.  iAr4i/jt  lAraJ    yva/iMt 


T^ 


i_Jai 


.i/\t/,  y/nA/  lA. 


nvJid'  Mh/rra. 


AAn/^.  Jt^PMJ  AJTl.ti.     /lAHJjyh/  h 


Xa  am  Li 


IML  A/i 


i<  AdmquA/2JlJ. 


f 


LxtiA..  Y^^lL  JL 


jnAT  "ViA.CUVi. 


SnAAi 


^  \  'I 


tAjiU,  ah 


U,  aX±ihi 


Fia.  1.— A  page  of  manuscript  prepared  in  accordance  with  the  instructions  given 
on  the  preceding  page.  For  the  meaning  of  the  figures  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner 
see  the  Rhetoric  Tablet. 


Appendix  A.  341 

L4/  cpjuit  "WiM/ziy,  TW^yvi/O  X/j  yviu    \myi(iiAJMJL  -n/rwvU 

iMkaJjMAf  Jb6  AjiUjJLoLhj  an/ici  MAMuyia  jJ    aJ'i4Vi'<4^ 

iru  yyu/yyu. 

lit  aJ  lAnju  jUyi^rtrdjL^ynjyi^  (rl  AvJ^  OMy,  M^^  yi/iirdjJi,  tw 

JMmj  OMJy  AMh  OyyuJuJ^  iJiAJU- yLrVj  yUV^  oJUL  tvUj 

Fig.  2.  —This  shows  a  common  fault  in  pupils'  manuscripts.    Beginning  each  new 
sentence  at  the  margin,  the  writer  has  left  noticeable  blank  spaces  at  the  right. 


APPENDIX   B. 

MARKS   USED   IN   CORRECTING. 

a.   In  the  MS. 

The  vfords,  clauses,  or  sentences  to  which  the  marginal  correc- 
tions refer,  are  indicated  by  crossing  out,  by  underscoring,  or  by 
enclosing  in  brackets  or  circles.  A  caret  shows  the  point  at  which 
something  is  to  be  supplied.  An  inverted  caret  marks  the  omission 
of  the  apostrophe  or  of  quotation  marks. 

h.    In  the  Margin. 
Amb.  — Ambiguous. 

(1)  Squinting  construction. 

When  a  phrase  or  clause  is  so  placed  that  it  may 
equally  well  be  understood  to  refer  to  what  precedes  it 
and  to  what  follows  it,  it  is  said  to  squint.     See  pp.  257, 

258. 

(2)  Participle  for  clause. 

Supplant  a  participle  by  a  clause  whenever  more  than 
one  interpretation  is  possible.  Example  :  "  Situated  only 
a  few  miles  from  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  has  grown  with 
marvellous  rapidity.'*  Write  either  ^'Because  it  is  situ- 
ated," or  "Although  it  is  situated,"  according  to  the 
meaning  intended. 

(3)  Misrelated  Participle. 

The  grammatical  relation  of  the  participle  to  the  rest 

of  the  sentence  should  not  be  left  in  doubt.     Examples : 

"  Having  dared  to  take  up  the  cause  of  the  abolitionists 

his  friends  would  no  longer  consort  openly  with  him." 

342 


Appendix  B.  343 

Does  "having  dared"  belong  with  "friends"  or  with 
"  him  "  ?  "  Looking  across  the  bay  a  large  ocean  steamer 
was  seen  headed  directly  for  the  harbor."  To  what  word 
does  the  participle  "looking"  belong? 

Ant.  —  Antecedent  needs  Attention. 

(1)  Tioo  or  more  possible  antecedents. 

Be  sure  fehat  the  antecedent  to  wiiich  a  relative  refers 
is  clear  and  unmistakable.     See  pp.  327-329. 

(2)  No  antecedent. 

Guard  against  using  a  relative  clause  that  has  no  ante- 
cedent. 

(3)  Relative  and  antecedent  do  not  agree. 

Singular  antecedents  require  singular  pronouns  of  refer- 
ence; relative  and  antecedent  should  agree  in  number. 
"He  is  one  of  those  men  who  disapproves  of  every  new 
idea,"  should  be  "  He  is  one  of  those  men  who  disapprovey' 
etc.  "Everybody  votes  according  to  their  own  convic- 
tions," should  be  "  Everybody  votes  according  to  Ms  own 
convictions." 

(4)  Repeat  the  antecedent. 

Repeat  an  idea  when  the  relative  alone  is  not  sufficient 
for  clearness.  "  His  opponents  w^ere  at  this  time  involved 
in  expensive  litigation,  which  partly  accounts  for  the 
feebleness  of  their  opposition."  The  meaning  probably 
is  "a  circumstance  which  partly  accounts  for,"  etc.  See 
pp.  328,  329. 

Cap.  —  Capitalize. 

See  Appendix  E. 
CI. — Not  Clear,  Vague,  Obscure,  Indefinite. 

(1)  Omission  of  necessary  word  or  ivords. 

(2)  Word  or  idea  needs  to  be  repeated. 

Repeat  a  word  when  its  omission  would  cause  obscurity. 
See  pp.  328,  329. 

(3)  Confusion  of  Ideas. 


344  Compositioyi-Rhetoric, 

Cnst.  —  Construction  Faulty. 

(1)  Wrong  coiistricction. 

Examples :  "  He  found  that  going  to  school  was  differ- 
ent than  (say  from  what)  he  expected."  "  My  principal 
had  forfeited  the  privilege  to  choose  (say  of  choosing)  his 
own  w^eapons." 

(2)  Unexpected  change  of  construction. 

In  similar  parts  of  the  sentence  use  the  same  construc- 
tion. Do  not  say,  ''  I  prefer  choosing  my  own  friends  and 
to  carry  out  my  own  plans,"  but  either,  "  I  prefer  choosing 
my  own  friends  and  carrying  out  my  own  plans,"  or  "I 
prefer  to  choose  my  own  friends  and  to  carry  out  my  own 
plans." 

(3)  Awkward  construction. 

Avoid  awkward  constructions,  such  as,  "  She  inquired 
of  the  Superintendent  as  to  the  probability  of  her  brother's 
suspension  from  the  school"  (better,  "She  asked  the  Su- 
perintendent if  her  brother  was  likely  to  be  suspended  from 
the  school ").  "  Their  destination  was  arrived  at  by  them 
by  daybreak"  ("  By  daybreak  they  arrived  at  their  desti- 
nation"). 

(4)  Involved  clauses. 

Beware  of  involved  clauses.     See  p.  325. 
Con.  —  Connection  Faulty. 

(1)  Means  of  explicit  reference  (conjunctions,  demonstra- 
tives, modifications  of  sentence-structure)  not  skilfully  man- 
aged. 

See  pp.  328-331. 

(2)  Wrong  conjunction  used. 

Distinguish  different  degrees  and  dift'erent  kinds  of 
connection  in  such  words  as  yet,  still,  but,  however,  and, 
so,  while,  whereas,  even,  together,  with,  since,  hence,  because, 
for,  etc.     See  p.  105. 


Appendix  B,  845 

(3)  Connectives  used  where  they  can  be  omitted. 

Connectives  may  sometimes  be  omitted  with  a  gain  to 
force.  Thus  it  is  less  forcible  to  say  "  Run  and  tell  your 
father  the  house  is  on  fire,"  than  to  say  "  Run !  Tell  your 
father  the  house  is  on  fire." 

(4)  Transitional  phrase  or  sentence  needed. 

Short  summarizing  phrases  or  sentences  maybe  needed, 
at  times,  to  indicate  the  direction  which  the  thought  is 
next  to  take,  or  the  manner  of  treatment  to  be  pursued. 
See  pp.  134,  135. 

(5)  Illogical  sequence. 

See  pp.  241-243,  323-325. 
Cond.  —  Condense. 

See  pp.  306-310. 

D.  —  See  the  Dictionary. 

E.  —  Bad  English. 

(1)  Diction  impure^  inaccuratej  or  unidiomatic. 

See  pp.  205-209. 

(2)  Construction  borrowed,  from  some  other  language. 

A  construction  borrowed  from  some  other  language 
requires  a  change  to  the  natural  word-order  of  English. 

Eu.  — Euphony  Violated. 

Exp.  —  Expand. 

See  pp.  297-301. 
Fig.  —  Error  in  the  Use  of  Figurative  Language. 

(1)  Mixed  metaphor. 

See  pp.  224,  225. 

(2)  Allusion  obscure. 

Images  of  things  that  are  familiar  are  easier  to  under- 
stand than  images  of  things  that  are  unfamiliar.  See 
p.  224. 


346  Composition-Rhetoric. 

(3)  Figure  uncalled  for. 

See  p.  223. 

rVT.  —  'Fine  Writing.' 

The  attempt  to  give  a  commonplace  idea  dignity  and 
force,  or  humor,  by  the  use  of  big  words  and  pretentious 
phrases,  is  termed  ' fine  writing.'  Thus  ''An  individual 
designated  by  the  not  uncommon  cognomen  of  Smith" 
is  'fine  writing'  for  "  a  man  named  Smith." 

Gr.  —  Bad  Grammar. 

(1)  Concord  in  number  or  tense  not  observed. 

(2)  Use  of  Shall  and  WUl 

See  p.  208. 
Kp.  —  Out  of  Keeping. 

(1)  Tone  of  the  composition  not  consistently  maintained. 

At  no  point  should  the  composition  vary  perceptibly 
from  the  level  of  thought  or  feeling  on  which  it  was  begun. 
A  commonplace  or  colloquial  remark  in  a  composition 
whose  prevailing  tone  is  pathetic,  a  jest  or  a  piece  of  slang 
in  a  composition  whose  prevailing  note  is  spiritual,  are 
often  ruinous  to  the  effect  that  would  otherwise  be  pro- 
duced. 

(2)  In  bad  taste, 

1.  c.  —  Change  Capital  to  Small  Letter. 

p.  —  Bad  Punctuation. 

See  Appendix  E. 

Pos.  —  "Wrong  Position. 

(1)  Related  words  separated. 

Related  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  should  be  brought 
as  close  as  possible  to  the  elements  which  they  modify. 
See  pp.  259,  260. 

(2)  Important  words  in  unemphatic  positions. 

Important  words  should  occupy  emphatic  positions. 
See  pp.  260-262. 


Appendix  B.  347 

(3)   Unimportant  words  in  empliatic  positions. 

See  pp.  260-262. 
R.  —  Repetition  to  be  Avoided. 

Avoid  needless  repetitions  of  the  same  word  or  sound. 
Rel.  —  Relative  Pronoun  at  Fault. 

(1)  Coordinate  for  restrictive  relative,  or  vice  versa. 

See  p.  209. 

(2)  Relative  may  he  omitted. 

The  restrictive  relative,  when  the  object  of  a  verb, 
may  often  be  omitted  without  loss  of  clearness.  Thus 
"  I  am  the  man  you  seek  "  is  sometimes  preferable  to  "  I 
am  the  man  that  you  seek." 

Sent.  —  Wrong  Form  of  Sentence. 

(1)  Periodic  for  loose  sentence,  or  vice  versa. 

See  pp.  161-165,  175-180. 

(2)  Monotonous  recurrence  of  the  same  form  of  sentence. 

See  pp.  142-145, 157,  162-164,  177. 
SI.  —Slang. 

See  p.  207. 
Sp.  —  Bad  Spelling. 
T.    — Tautology. 
Tr.  — Transpose. 
U.  —Unity  Violated. 

(1)  Sentence  contains  unrelated  idea  or  too  many  ideas. 

See  pp.  324,  325. 

(2)  Clauses  appended  or  not  properly  subordinated. 

Appended  phrases  and  clauses  should  be  reduced  to 
inconspicuous  forms  or  transferred  to  inconspicuous  posi- 
tions. Subordinate  details  should  be  kept  subordinate  in 
form  of  statement. 

(3)  Unity  of  paragraph  violated. 

See  pp.  314-319. 


348  Composition-Rhetoric. 

W.  —  Weak. 

(1)  Terms  too  general. 

Use  particular  and  concrete  expressions  to  give  vigor 
and  interest.     See  pp.  219-223. 

(2)  Anti-dimax. 

See  pp.  234-236. 

(3)  Hackneyed  ivords  or  phrases. 

Avoid  trite  and  meaningless  expressions. 
1  — Paragraph. 

Noll   —Do  not  paragraph. 
8  —  Omit. 

X  or  ?  — Error,  not  specified. 

O         —  Join  the  parts  of  a  word,  incorrectly  separated. 
(-)        — Hyphen  to  be  supplied. 

c.   At  Beginning  or  End  op  the  MS. 

One  of  the  above  marks  placed  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  the 
manuscript  warns  the  writer  against  a  prevailing  fault.  The  gen- 
eral character  of  the  manuscript  is  indicated  by  the  following 
letters :  A,  excellent ;  B,  fair ;  C,  poor ;  D,  very  bad,  rewrite. 


APPENDIX   C. 

MATERIAL   FOR  ANALYSIS  AND  REPRODUCTION. 

(a)    Stories. 

1.  Aldrich.     Marjorie  Daw.     Atlan.,  31  :  407. 

2.  Hawthorne.     The  Gentle  Boy. 

3.  Higginson.     A  Charge  with  Prince  Rupert.     Atlan.,  3  ;  725. 

4.  Hale.     The  Man  without  a  Country.     Atlan.,  12  :  665. 

5.  Jewett.     The  Shore  House.     Atlan.,  32  :  358. 

6.  Eggleston.     Gunpowder  Plot.     Scribner,  2  :  252. 

7.  Davis.     Life  in  the  Iron  Mills.     Atlan.,  7  :  430. 

8.  Hale.     My  Double  and  How  He  Undid  Me.     Atlan.,  4  :  356. 

9.  Higginson.     The  Puritan  Minister.     Atlan.  Essays,  191. 

10.  Howells.     A  Pedestrian  Tour.     Atlan.,  24  :  591. 

11.  Higginson.     A  Mght  in  the  Water.     Atlan.,  14  :  393. 

12.  Burroughs.     Tragedies  of  the  Nests.     Century,  4  :  680. 

13.  Burroughs.     Signs  and  Seasons.     Century,  3  :  672. 

14.  Bishop.     Braxton's  New  Art.     Century,  6  :  871. 

15.  Bunner.     The  Red  Silk  Handkerchief.     Century,  6  :  275. 

16.  Stockton.     Wreck  of  the  Thomas  Hyke.     Century,  6  :  587. 

17.  Janvier.     Orpiment  and  Gamboge.     Century,  7  :  397. 

18.  Foote.     A  Cloud  on  the  Mountain.     Century,  9  :  28. 

19.  Jackson.     The  Mystery  of  William  Rutter.     Century,  9  :  103. 

20.  Boyesen.     A  Child  of  the  Age.     Century,  9  :.  177. 

21.  Clemens.     The  Private  History  of  a  Campaign  that  Failed. 

Century,  9  :  193. 

22.  Matthews.     Perturbed  Spirits.     Century,  10  :  74. 

23.  Page.     A  Soldier  of  the  Empire.     Century,  10  :  948. 

24.  Hart.     Left  out  on  Lone  Star  Mountain.     Longm.,  3  :  259. 

25.  Dodge.     Pursuit   of   Knowledge  Under  Difficulties.     Atlan., 

5  :  272,  417. 

349 


350  Composition-Rhetoric . 

26.  Thanet.     Day  of  the  Cyclone.     Scribner  (K  S.),  3  :  350. 

27.  Haggard.     Maiwa's  Revenge.     Harper,  77  :  181. 

28.  Harte.     An  Apostle  of  the  Tules.     Longm.,  1885  :  67. 

29.  Wilson.      Tale   of   Expiation.      Recreations    of    Christopher 

:^rorth,  p.  33. 

30.  Aldrich.     A  Midnight  Fantasy.     Atlan.,  35  :  385. 

31.  Phelps.     In  the  Gray  Goth.     Atlan.,  6  :  587. 

32.  Jewett.     Deephaven  Cronies.     Atlan.,  36  :  316. 

33.  James.     The  Last  of  the  Yalerii.     Atlan.,  33  :  169. 

34.  Taylor.     Who  was  She?     Atlan.,  34  :  257. 

35.  Stockton.     Our  Story.     Century,  4  :  762. 

36.  Aldrich.     A  Struggle  for  Life.     Atlan.,  20  :  56. 

37.  Stockton.     A  Story  of  Assisted  Fate.     Atlan.,  55  :  58. 

38.  Taylor.     A  Week  on  Capri.     Atlan.,  21  ;  740. 

39.  Howells.     A  Shaker  Village.     Atlan.,  37  :  699. 

40.  Lowell.     A  Pocket  Celebration  of  the  Fourth.     Atlan.,  2  :  374. 

41.  Hawthorne.     Ethan  Brand.     (In  The  Snow  Image,  etc.) 

42.  Cable.     Don  Joaquin.     Harper,  52  :  281. 

43.  McCarthy.     Wanted  —  A  Soul.     Harper,  52  :  549. 

44.  Woolson.     Miss  Yedder.     Harper,  58  :  590. 

45.  Davis.     A  Story  of  the  Plague.     Harper,  58  :  443. 

46.  Stockton.     The  Transferred  Ghost.     Century,  2  :  43. 

47.  McDonald.     The  Portent.     Cornh.,  1  :  617,  670;  2  :  74. 

48.  Gray.     The  Silver  Casket.     Murray's  Mag.,  2  :  203. 

49.  Hardy.     The  Waiting  Supper.     Murray's  Mag.,  3  :  42,  199. 

50.  Appleton.     A  Half-Life  and  Half  a  Life.     Atlantic  Stories. 

51.  Whelpley.     The  Denslow  Palace.     Atlantic  Stories. 

52.  Cooke.     Miss  Lucinda.     Atlantic  Stories. 

53.  Hale.     The  Queen  of  the  Red  Chessmen.     Atlantic  Stories. 

54.  ISTordhoff.     Elkanah  Brewster's  Temptation.     Atlantic  Stories. 

55.  Chesbro.     Victor  and  Jacqueline.     Atlantic  Stories. 

56.  Arnold.     AVhy  Thomas  Was  Discharged.     Atlantic  Stories. 

57.  Lowell.     A  Raft  that  No  Man  Made.     Atlantic  Stories. 

58.  O'Brien.     The  Diamond  Lens.     Atlantic  Stories. 

59.  Jewett.     Marsh  Rosemary.     Atlan.,  57  :  590. 

60.  De  Quincey.     Joan  of  Arc. 

61.  Thackeray.     The  Fatal  Boots. 

62.  Craddock.     His  Day  in  Court.     Harper,  76  :  56. 

63.  Matthews.     A  Secret  of  the  Sea.     Harper,  71  :  78. 


Appendix  Q.  351 

64.  Bishop.     Choy  Susan.     Atlan.,  54  :  1. 

65.  Hawthorne.     Ken's  Mystery.     Harper,  67  :  925. 

66.  Jewett.     King  of  Folly  Island.     Harper,  74  :  10. 

67.  Frederic.     Brother  Arigelus.     Harper,  73  :  517. 

68.  Craddock.     Lonesome  Cove.     Harper,  72  :  128. 

69.  Reade.     Tit  for  Tat.     Harper,  66  :  251. 

70.  Boyesen.     A  Dangerous  Virtue.     Scribner,  21  :  745. 

71.  Boyesen.     The  Man  who  Lost  his  Name.     Scribner,  12  :  808. 

72.  Clemens.     A  Curious  Experience.     Century,  1  :  35. 

73.  Phelps.     The  Tenth  of  January.     Atlan.,  21  :  345. 

74.  Bishop.     The  Brown-Stone  Boy.     Atlan.,  55  :  330. 

75.  Taylor.     Friend  Eli's  Daughter.     Atlan.,  10  :  99. 

76.  Thackeray.     Bluebeard's  Ghost. 

77.  James.     The  Romance  of  Certain  Old  Clothes. 

78.  Aldrich.     A  Rivermouth  Romance.     Atlan.,  30  :  157. 

79.  Dickens.     Wreck  of  the  Golden  Mary. 

80.  Dickens.     George  Silverman's  Explanation. 

81.  Thackeray.     Rebecca  and  Rowena.     (In  Christmas  Books.) 

82.  Bishop.     One  of  the  Thirty  Pieces.     Atlan.,  37  :  43. 

83.  Hale.     The  Modern  Psyche.     Harper,  51  :  885. 

84.  Stevenson.     The  Merry  Men. 

85.  Lamb.     Adventures  of  Ulysses. 

86.  Pyle.     Stephen  AVycherley.     Harper,  75  :  56. 

87.  Woolson.     A  Flower  of  the  Snow.     Galaxy,  17  :  76. 

88.  Bates.     The  Intoxicated  Ghost.     Century,  24  :  393. 

89.  King.     Balcony  Stories.     Century,  24  :  230,  372,  374,  544,  547, 

722,  724,  884,  889. 

90.  Jewett.     The  Hiltons'  Holiday.     Century,  24  :  772. 

91.  Eggleston.     The  Redemptioners.     Century,  24  :  625. 

92.  Drake.     The  Curious  Vehicle.     Century,  25  :  217. 

93.  King.     Kitwyk  Stories.     Century,  25  :  27,  226,  759  ;  28  :  334 

94.  Foote.     On  a  Side-Track.     Century,  28  :  271. 

95.  Jewett.     The  Only  Rose.     Atlantic,  73  :  37. 

96.  Catherwood.     The  Windigo.     Atlantic,  73  :  526. 

97.  Wister.     The  General's  Bluff.     Harper,  89  :  508. 

98.  Grant.     In  Fly-Time.     Harper,  89  :.296. 

99.  Woolson.     A  Waitress.     Harper,  89  :  88. 

100.   Matthews.     Vignettes  of  Manhattan.     Harper,  89  :  33,  222, 
457. 


352  Composition- Rhetoric, 

101.  Page.     The  Burial  of  the  Guns.     Scribner  (N".  S.),  15  :  410. 

102.  Shelton.     A   Man    without    a   Memory.     Scribner   (N.   S.), 

16  :  68. 

103.  Bunner.     French  for  a  Fortnight.     Scribner  (1^.  S.),  16  :  161. 

104.  Webb.     Electrician-in-charge.     Scribner  (IST.  S.),  16  :  316. 

105.  Palmer.     The  Mantle  of  Osiris.     Scribner  (X.  S.),  16  :  718. 

106.  Matthews.     A  Primer  of  Imaginary  Geography.     Scribner 

(K  S.),  16  :  729. 

107.  Parker.     The  Going  of  the  White  Swan.     Scribner  (K  S.), 

17  :  65. 

108.  Matthews.     The  Kinetoscope  of  Time.     Scribner,  (N.  S.), 

18  :  733. 


(h)   Essays,  Speeches,  Sketches. 

1.  Representative  British  Orations.     3  vols. 

2.  Representative  American  Orations.     3  vols. 

3.  Huntington.     A  Plea  for  Railway  Consolidation.     No.  Am., 

153  :  272. 

4.  Livermore.     Cooperative   Womanhood    in  the   State.     No. 

Am.,    153  :  283. 

5.  Douglass.     Hayti  and  the  United  States.    No.  Am.,  153  :  337. 

6.  Bryce.    Thoughts  on  the  Negro  Problem.    No.  Am.,  153  :  641. 

7.  Luce.     Benefits  of  War.     No.  Am.,  153  :  672. 

8.  Powderly.     The  Workingman  and  Frfie  Silver.     No.  Am., 

153  :  728. 

9.  Hubert.     The  New  Talking  Machines.     Atlan.,  63  :  256. 

10.  Parkman.     The  Acadian  Tragedy.     Harper,  69  :  877. 

11.  Starbuck.     Hawthorne.     Andover  Rev.    7  :  31. 

12.  Phelps.     Shylock  vs.  Antonio.     Atlan.,  57  :  463. 

13.  Long.     Of  Style.     An  Old  Man's  Thoughts. 

14.  Davis.     Shakespeare's    Miranda    and    Tennyson's     Elaine. 

Poet-Lore,  Jan.  1893. 

15.  Stoddard.     The  English  Laureates.     Cosmop.  Jan.  1893. 

16.  Billson.     The  English  Novel.     Westmin.  Rev.  Jan.  1893. 

17.  Rogers.     G.   W.   Curtis  and  Civil  Service  Reform.     Atlan. 

Jan.  1893. 

18.  Johnson.     The  Transformation  of  Energy.     Westmin.  Rev. 

Dec.  1892. 


Appendix  C,  353 

19.  White.     Homes  of  the  Poor.     Chautauquan,  Jan.  1893. 

20.  Bartlett.     The  Prison  Question.    Am.  Jour.  Politics,  Jan.  1893. 

21.  Higginson.     Boston.     St.  Nicholas,  Jan.  1893. 

22.  Acworth.     Railway  Mismanagement.     19th  Cent.  Dec.  1892. 

23.  Brooke.     Tennyson.     Contemp.  Rev.  Dec.  1893. 

24.  Mace.     Universal  Suffrage  in  France.     No.  Am.  Jan.  1893. 

25.  Dodge.     A  Bible  Lesson  for  Herbert  Spencer.     No.  Am.  Jan. 

1893. 

26.  Williams.    The  Kindergarten  Movement.     Century,  Jan.  1893. 

27.  Flower.     Are  We  a  Prosperous  People?     Arena,  Jan.  1893. 

28.  Hadley.     Jay  Gould  and  Socialism.     Forum,  Jan.  1893. 

29.  Campbell.     Women  Wage  Earners.     Arena,  Jan.  1893. 

30.  Gosse.     Tennyson.     New  Rev.  Nov.  1892. 

31.  Kingsley.     English  Literature.     Lit.  and  Gen.  Essays,  245. 

32.  Repplier.     Benefits  of  Superstition.     Books  and  Men,  33. 

33.  Dawkins.     Settlement  of  Wales.     Fort.  Rev.  Oct.  1892. 

34.  Edmunds.     Politics  as  a  Career.     Forum,  Dec.  1892. 

35.  Scudder.     The  Place  of  College  Settlements.     Andover  Rev. 

Oct.  1892. 

36.  Adams.     Municipal  Government.     Forum,  Nov.  1892. 

37.  Andrews.     Are  there  too  Many  of  Us?    No.  Am.  Nov.  1892. 

38.  Matthews.     Two  Studies  of  the  South.     Cosmop.  Nov.  1892. 

39.  Cable.     Education  for  the  South.     Cosmop.  Nov.  1892. 

40.  Walsh.     The  Ethics  of  Great  Strikes.     No.  Am.  Oct.  1892. 

41.  Gunsaulus.     The  Ideal  of  Culture.     Chautauquan,  Oct.  1892. 

42.  Stoddard.     James  Russell  Lowell.     Lippincott's,  Oct.  1892. 

43.  Garner.     Monkey's  Academy  in  Africa.     New  Rev.  Sept.  1892. 

44.  Patmore.     Three  Essayettes.     Fort.  Rev.  July  1892. 

45.  Adams.     Some  Recent  Novels.     Fort.  Rev.  July  1892. 

46.  Johnson.     The  First  University.     Westmin.  Rev.  Sept.  1892. 

47.  Flower.     The  Menace  of  Plutocracy.     Arena,  Sept.  1892. 

48.  Habberton.     Social  Science  in  Business  Life.     Chautauquan, 

Sept.  1892. 

49.  Besant.     Literature  as  a  Career.     Forum,  Aug.  1892. 

50.  Farrar.    Shaftesbury's  Work  among  the  London  Poor.    Meth. 

Mag.  Aug.  1892. 

51.  Repplier.     Wit  and  Humor.     Atlan.  Dec.  1892. 

52.  Fowler.     Whittier  and  Tennyson.     Arena,  Dec.  1892. 

53.  Gladden.     The  Problem  of  Poverty.     Century,  Dec.  1892. 


354  Composition- Rhetoric, 

54.  Smith.     Arnold  of  Rugby.     Educ.  Rev.  Dec.  1892. 

55.  Keviiison.     Goethe  as  a  Minister  of  State.     Contemp.  Rev. 

Nov.  1892. 

56.  Schwatka.     Land  of  the  Living  Cliff  Dwellers.     Century,  June 

1892. 

57.  Bigelow.     Bismarck.     Contemp.  Rev.  May  1892. 

58.  Parke.     How  General  Gordon  was  Really  Lost.     Nineteenth 

Cent.  May  1892. 

59.  Tyndall.     Coast  Protection.     New  Rev.  April  1892. 

60.  Gladden.      The  Plain  Path  of  Reform.      Charities  Review, 

April  1892. 

61.  Bradley.     Patrick  Henry.     Macmillan's  Mag.  March  1892. 

62.  Scudamore.     Egypt  and  the  Late  Khedive.     Blackwood's,  Feb. 

1892. 

63.  Gilder.     Paderewski.     Century,  March  1892. 

64:.   Hubbard.     The  Tax  on  Barbarism.     N.  E.  and  Yale   Rev. 
March  1892. 

65.  Buel.     The  Louisiana  Lottery.     Century,  Feb.  1892. 

66.  White.     Suppression  of  Lotteries.     Forum,  Feb.  1892. 

67.  The  Short  Story.     Atlan.  Feb.  1892. 

68.  Edmunds.     Perils  of  our  National  Elections.     Forum,  Feb. 

1892. 

69.  Tolman.     Studies  in  Macbeth.     Atlan.  Feb.  1892. 

70.  Dodge.     Progress  in  Agriculture.     Amer.  Agric.  Jan.  1892. 

71.  Gale.     The  Marble  Faun  Interpreted.     N.  E.  and  Yale  Rev. 

Jan.  1892. 

72.  Boyesen.     W.  D.  Howells  and  his  Work.     Cosmop.  Feb.  1892. 

73.  Atkinson  and  Cabot.     Personal  Liberty.     Pop.  Sc.  Mo.  Feb. 

1892. 

74.  Adams.     Rise  and  Fall  of  Fonseca."     Cosmop.  Feb.  1892. 

75.  Goodwin.     English  and  American  Schoolboys.     School  and 

College,  Feb.  1892. 

76.  Walker.     How  a  Bill  presented  in  Congress  becomes  a  Law. 

Chautauquan,  Feb.  1892. 

77.  Davies.    Compulsory  Education.    Westminster  Rev.  Feb.  1892. 

78.  Earle.     The  Study  of  English.     Forum,  March  1892. 

79.  Cox.     Men  of  '61.     Why  they  Fought.     Atlan.  March  1892< 

80.  Lathrop.     John  Boyle  O'Reilly.     Century,  Dec.  1891. 

81.  Lowell.     Shakespeare's  Richard  IIL     Atlan.  Dec.  1891. 


Appendix  O,  355 

82.  Sears.   Football  —  Sport  and  Training.     No.  Am.  Rev.  Dec. 

1891. 

83.  James.     James  Russell  Lowell.     Atlan.  Jan.  1892. 

84.  Powell.     A  World-wide  Republic.     Arena,  Jan.  1892. 

85.  Stedman.     Juliet's  Runaway.     Poet-Lore,  Jan.  1892. 

86.  Mills.     General   Booth's    Experiment.     Unitar.   Rev.    Dec. 

1891. 

87.  Walton.     A  Brief  for  Ophelia.     Poet-Lore,  Xov.  1891. 

88.  Handy.     Negro  Superstitions.     Lippincott's,  Dec.  1891. 

89.  Freeman.     Dangers  to  the  Peace  of  Europe.     Forum,  Nov. 

1891. 

90.  Benton.     Lowell's  Americanism.     Century,  Nov.  1891. 

91.  Potter.     The  Profit  of  Good  Country  Roads.     Forum,  Nov. 

189L 

92.  Atkinson.     Free  Coinage  of  Silver.     Forum,  Oct.  1891. 

93.  Farrar.     An  English  Estimate  of  Lowell.     Forum,  Oct.  1891. 

94.  Gosse.     Rudyard  Kipling.     Century,  Oct.  1891. 

95.  Repplier.     The  Oppression  of  Notes.     Atlan.  Aug.  1891. 

96.  Clark.     Public  Life.     Forum,  July  1891. 

97.  McCracken.     Six  Centuries  of  Self-Government.     Atlan.  Aug. 

1891. 

98.  W^alker.     Immigration  and  Degradation.     Forum,  Aug.  1891. 

99.  Thatcher.     The  Failure  of  the  Jury  System.     No.  Am.  Rev. 

Aug.  1891. 

100.  Dilke.     Trades  Unions  for  Women.     No.  Am.  Rev.  Aug.  1891. 

101.  Hurlbut.     Reciprocity  and  Canada.     No.  Am.  Rev.  Oct.  1891. 

102.  Shaler.     Nature  of  the  Negro.     Arena,  Dec.  1891. 

103.  Mathews.     The  Whole  Duty  of  Critics.     New  Rev.  Nov.  1890. 

104.  Martin.     The  Chinese  as  They  See  Us.     Forum,  Feb.  1891. 

105.  Gosse.     Influence   of   Democracy  on   Literature.     Contemp. 

Rev.  Apr.  1891. 

106.  Osgood.      Political  Ideas  of  the  Puritans.     Pol.  Sc.  Quart. 

March  1891. 

107.  Rainsford.     What  can  We  Do  for  the  Poor?    Forum,  Apr. 

1891. 

108.  McCracken.     Arnold  Winkelried.     Atlan.  Apr.  1891. 

109.  Rice.     The  Example  of  a  Great  Life.     No.  Am.  Rev.  Apr. 

1891. 

110.  Morris.     New  Africa.     Lippincott's,  Apr.  1891. 


356  Composition-Rhetoric, 

111.  Nelson.     Town   and   Village   Government.      Harper,   June 

1891. 

112.  Richardson.      The   College   Settlement.     Lippincott's,  June 

1891. 

113.  Walker.     Colored  Race  in  the  United  States.     Forum,  July 

1891. 

114.  Caylor.     Theory  and  Introduction  of  Curve  Pitching.     Out- 

ing, Aug.  1891. 

115.  Blum.     The  Russia  of  To-day.     Arena,  May  1891. 

116.  Rouss.     Cash  vs.  Credit.     Belford's  Mag.  March  1891. 

117.  Spreckels.     The  Future  of  the  Sandvv^ich  Islands.     No.  Am. 

Rev.  March  1891. 

118.  Salter.     The  Problem  of  the  Unemployed.     New  Eng.  Mag. 

March  1891. 

119.  Stark.     Silver  Coinage.     Arena,  Jan.  1891. 

120.  Shearman.     The  Coming  Billionaire.     Forum,  Jan.  1891. 

121.  Shaler.     Individualism  in  Education.     Atlan.  Jan.  1891. 

122.  Allen.     The  Case  of  Roger  Williams.    Unitar.  Rev.  Jan.  1891. 

123.  McCracken.     Legend  of  William  Tell.     Atlan.  Nov.  1890. 

124.  Gladden.     The  Embattled  Farmers.     Forum,  Nov.  1890. 

125.  Kitson.     The  Logic  of  Free  Trade  and  Protection.     Pop.  Sc. 

Mo.  Nov.  1890. 

126.  Tilly.    The  Shibboleth  of  Public  Opinion.    Forum,  Nov.  1890. 

127.  Stoddard.    Thomas  Buchanan  Reed.    Lippincott's,  Feb.  1891. 

128.  Bridges.     Coeducation  in  Swiss  Universities.     Pop.  Sc.  Mo. 

Feb.  1891. 

129.  Roosevelt.      An   Object    Lesson   in   Civil   Service    Reform, 

Atlan.  Feb.  1891. 

130.  Miles.      Progress   in   Agricultural    Science.      Pop.    Sc.   Mo. 

Feb.  1891. 
13L   Hyatt.     Public  Parks.     Atlan.  Feb.  1891. 

132.  Woods.     University  Extension  in  England.     Andover  Rev. 

March  1891. 

133.  Coxe.     Do  We  Hate  England?    Forum,  March  1891. 

134.  Danziger.     Labor   Unions   and   Strikes   in  Ancient   Rome. 

Cosmop.  March  1891. 

135.  Graham.     Supposed  Tendencies  to  Socialism.     Pop.  Sc.  Mo. 

March  1891. 

136.  Child.     The  Argentine  Capital.    Harper,  March  1891. 


Appendix  (7.  867 

137.  Parsons.     The  Saloon  in  Society.     Atlan.,  59  :  86. 

138.  Cable.     The  Freedman's  Case  in  Equity.     Century,  7  :  409. 

139.  Cable.     The  Silent  South.     Century,  8  :  674. 

140.  Landor.     Steele  and  Addison.     Works,  Vol.  5. 

141.  De  Foe.     The  Fire  of  London. 

142.  Johnson.     Life  of  Addison. 

143.  Macaulay.     Essay  on  History. 

144.  Quincy.     Invasion  of  Canada.     Speeches,  p.  355. 

145.  Sumner.     Are  We  a  Nation  ?     Works,  12  :  19L 

146.  Sumner.     No  Property  in  Man.     Works,  8  :  359. 

147.  Sumner.     Duties  of  Massachusetts.     Works,  3  :  121. 

148.  Everett.     American  Literature.     Orations,  1. 

149.  Webster.     The  Constitution  not  a  Compact.     Works,  3. 

150.  Lowell.     The  Independent  in  Politics.     Essays,  295. 

151.  Walker.     Socialism.     Scribner  (N.  S.),  1  :  107. 

152.  Lowell.     Democracy,  3-42. 

153.  Macaulay.     On  the  Athenian  Orators. 

154.  Short.      Claims   to    the    Discovery   of    America.      Galaxy, 

20  :  50. 

155.  Fiske.     The  Federal  Union.     Harper,  70  :  407. 

156.  Higginson.     The  Era  of  Good  Feeling.     Harper,  68  :  936. 

157.  Kingsley.     The  Fount  of  Science.     Natl  Sermons,  108-133. 

158.  Geo.  Eliot.     Address  to  Workingmen.     Essays,  322. 

159.  Whately.     Historic  Doubts  Relative  to  Napoleon.     11-85. 

160.  Dawes.     An  Unknown  Nation.     Harper,  76  :  598. 

161.  Warner.     Comments  on  Canada.     Harper,  78  :  520. 

162.  White.     On  Reading  Shakespeare.     Galaxy,  22  :  518. 

163.  House.     The  Thraldom  of  Japan.     Atlan.,  60  :  721. 

164.  Powell.     The  Failure  of  Protection.     Eraser,  104  :  99. 

165.  Froude.     The  Book  of  Job.     Short  Studies,  1  :  228. 

166.  Howell.     Strikes.     Eraser,  101  :  118. 

167.  Black.     The  Electoral  Conspiracy.     No.  Am.,  125  :  L 

168.  White.     Popular  Pie.     Galaxy,  18  :  532. 

169.  White.     Americanisms.     Galaxy,  24  :  376. 

170.  Gladstone.     Kin  beyond  Sea.     Gleanings,  1  :  203. 

171.  Gladstone.     Aggressions  on  Egypt.     Gleanings,  4  :  341. 

172.  Gladstone.     Wedgwood.     Gleanings,  2  :  181. 

173.  Froude.     England's  War.     Short  Studies,  2  :  382. 

174.  Froude.     Party  Politics.     Short  Studies,  3  ;  309. 


358  Composition-Rhetoric. 

175.  Freeman.     George  Washington.     Greater  Greece,  etc.,  62. 

176.  Green,     ^neas.     Studies,  etc.,  227. 

177.  Welles.     History  of  Emancipation.     Galaxy,  14  :  838. 

178.  Coan.     The  Value  of  Life.     Galaxy,  15  :  751. 

179.  Sumner.     Politics  in  America.     No.  Am.,  122  :  47. 

180.  Roosevelt.     Recent  Criticism  of  America.     Murray's  Mag.. 

4  :  289. 

'181.  Arnold.     General  Grant.     Murray's  Mag.,  1  :  130. 

182.  Allen.     Landowning  and  Copyright.     Fraser,  102  :  343. 

183.  Howell.     Trades  Unions.     Fraser,  99  :  22. 

184.  Fiske.     Manifest  Destiny.     Essays. 

185.  Tyndall.     Scientific  Use  of  the  Imagination. 

186.  Bagehot.     The  English  Constitution  and  Other  Essays. 

187.  Camp.     College  Athletics.     Century,  24  :  393. 

188.  Van  Rennselaer.     At  the  Fair.     Century,  24  :  3. 

189.  Roosevelt.     In  Cowboy-Land.     Century,  24  :  276. 

190.  West.     The  Poets  Laureate.     Century,  24  :  476. 

191.  Fortune.     Street  Paving  in  America.     Century,  24  :  894. 

192.  Chamberlain.     A  Glance  at  Webster.     Century,  24  :  709. 

193.  Nott.     Hunting  with  the  Chetah.     Century,  25  :  567. 

194.  Simpson.     Sir  James  Simpson's  Introduction  of  Chloroform. 

Century,  25  :  412. 

195.  Sewell.     My  First  and  Last  Balloon  Ascension.     Century, 

25  :  834. 

196.  Holden.     Earthquakes  and  How  to  Measure  them.     Century, 

25  :  749. 

197.  Adams.     Lincoln's  Place  in  History.     Century,  25  :  590. 

198.  Seton-Karr.     My  First  Lions.     Century,  25  :  22. 

199.  Maxim.     A  New  Flying-Machine.     Century,  27  :  444. 

200.  Keeler.     Picturing  the  Planets.     Century,  28  :  455. 

201.  Flynt.     How  Men  become  Tramps.     Century,  28  :  941. 

202.  McGifeen.     The  Battle  of  the  Yalu.     Century,  28  :  585. 

203.  Repplier.     Ghosts.     Atlan.,  74  :  741. 

204.  Lowell.     Mars.     Atlan.,  75  :  594,  749  ;•  76  :  106,  223. 

205.  Sidis.     A  Study  of  the  Mob.     Atlan.,  75  :  188. 

206.  Bell.     The  Subtle  Art  of  Speech-Reading.     Atlan.,  75  :  164. 

207.  Robinson.     A  Voyage  in  the  Dark.     Atlan.,  75  :  172. 

208.  Trowbridge.     Some  Confessions  of  a  Novel- Writer.     Atlan., 

75  ;  316. 


Scribner   (N. 

s.), 

Scribner  (N. 

S.), 

Scribner    (N. 

s.), 

Scribner    (N. 

S.), 

Appendix  C,  359 

209.  Brooks.    The  Harvard  and  Yale  Boat-Race.    Harper,  89  :  181. 

210.  Sicard.     Trial  Trip  of  a  Cruiser.     Harper,  90  :  524. 

211.  Howells.     True  I  talk  of  Dreams.     Harper,  90  :  836. 

212.  Cook.     Stories  in  Stone  from  Notre  Dame.    Scribner  (N.  S.), 

15  :  69. 

213.  Winthrop.     Webster's   Reply  to   Hayne.     Scribner    (N.  S.), 

15  :  118. 

214.  Baldwin.     The  School-Master.     Scribner  (N.  S.),  15  :  171. 

215.  Harris.      The   Sea  Island   Hurricanes. 

15  :  228,  267. 

216.  Ferree.     The  High  Building  and  its  Art. 

15  :  297. 

217.  Thanet.      The   Farmer   in   the   North. 

15  :  323. 

218.  Hubert.      The    Cable    Street-Eailway. 

15  :  371. 

219.  Kobbe.     Life  under  Water.     Scribner  (N.  S.),  15  :  426. 

220.  Danidge.     Working-Girls'  Clubs.     Scribner  (N.  S.),  15  :  619. 

221.  Shaler.     The  Dog.     Scribner  (N.  S.),  15  :  692. 

222.  Thanet.     The  Working-Man.     Scribner  (N.  S.),  16  :  100. 

223.  Bergen.     The  Tapestry  of  the  New  World.     Scribner  (N.  S.), 

16  :  360. 

224.  Prout.     Railroad  Travel  in  England  and  America.     Scribner 

(N.  S.),  16  :  399. 

225.  Ralph.     Election   Night  in  a  Newspaper   Office.     Scribner 

(N.  S.),  16  :  531. 

226.  Shaler.     The  Horse.     Scribner  (N.  S.),  16  :  566. 

227.  Dana.     Giants  and  Giantism.     Scribner  (N.  S.),  17  :  179. 

228.  Wetzler.     Will  the  Electric  Motor  Supersede  Steam  ?     Scrib- 

ner (N.  S.),  17  :  594. 

229.  Hubert.     The  Bicycle.     Scribner  (N.  S.),  17  :  692. 

230.  Edwards.     Life   at  the   Athletic   Clubs.     Scribner  (N.  S.), 

18:4. 

231.  Shaler.     Domesticated  Birds.     Scribner  (N.  S.),  18  :  501. 

232.  Melliss.     Wild    Beasts    as    they    Live.     Scribner    (N.   S.), 

18  :  705. 

233.  Roosevelt.     What  Americanism  Means.     Forum,  17  :  196. 

234.  Hopkins.     The  Stability  of  the  House  of  Lords.     Forum, 

17  :  329. 


860  Composition-Rhetoric. 

235.  Collier.       Home    Life,    English    and    American.       Forum, 

17  :  345. 

236.  Cook.     The  Antarctic's  Challenge  to  the  Explorer.     Forum, 

•   17  :  505. 

237.  Harrison.      George    Eliot's   Place    in   Literature.      Forum, 

20  :  66. 

238.  Nevvcomb.     The  Civil  Service  as  a  Career.     Forum,  20  :  120. 

239.  Howells.     The  Nature  of  Liberty.     Forum,  20  :  401. 
i40.   Ferrero.     Crime  among  Animals.     Forum,  20  :  492. 

i41.   Arnold.     Victoria,  Queen  and  Empress.     Forum,  20  :  667. 


APPENDIX   D. 

SUBJECTS   FOR   ESSAYS. 

(a)   Essays  in  Description. 

1.  The  face  I  know  best. 

2.  A  political  cartoon. 

3.  In  the  wilderness. 

4.  A  cabinet  of  curiosities. 

5.  Portraits  of  Tennyson. 

6.  Shylock,  as  I  conceive  him. 

7.  Some  absurd  costumes  of  our  great-grandparents. 

8.  A  street-arab. 

9.  The  pop-corn  man. 

10.  The  oldest  house  in  town. 

11.  A  portrait  of  Goethe. 

12.  The  face  of  Bryant  compared  with  that  of  Longfellow. 

13.  A  typical  Indian. 

14.  An  immigrant. 

15.  Portraits  of  George  Washington. 

16.  A  stone  hatchet. 

17.  Our  camp  on  the  lake. 

18.  The  beginning  of  the  tournament  —  waiting  for  the  signal. 

19.  A  corner  of  the  old  barn. 

20.  An  actor  off  the  stage. 

21.  The  House  of  Commons. 

22.  Costume  of  an  ancient  Roman. 

23.  Scene  in  a  Roman  school. 

24.  The  Acropolis  restored. 

25.  What  a  diver  sees  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 

26.  A  freight  train,  in  motion. 

27.  Moses,  by  Michael  Angelo. 

361 


362  Composition-Rhetoric  o 

28.  A  piece  of  coral. 

29.  The  first  steamboat. 

30.  The  tower-clock. 

31.  The  long-distance  telephone. 

32.  A  ship  on  the  stocks. 

33.  A  curious  advertisement. 

34.  Our  newsboy. 

35.  A  Chinese  laundry. 

36.  A  yacht  under  full  sail. 

37.  The  old  boat  on  tl:  3  beach. 

38.  Two  tramps. 

39.  An  old  violin. 

40.  The  canals  of  Mars. 

41.  Scene  on  the  Amazon. 

42.  The  Eiffel  tower. 

43.  An  electric  motor. 

44.  Interior  of  a  power-house. 

45.  A  cantilever  bridge. 

46.  The  inside  ot  a  steam-boiler. 

47.  A  Rontgen  photograph. 

48.  The  first'  locomotive. 

49.  Our  chemical  laboratory. 

50.  Scientific  kites. 

51.  A  silver  mine. 

52.  My  favorite  apple. 

53.  A  spring  flood. 

54.  Difference  between  a  head  of  wheat  and  of  rye. 

55.  How  to  tell  a  weed  from  a  flower. 

56.  The  most  perfect  shade  tree  in  our  town. 

57.  A  dynamite  explosion. 

58.  The  old-time  schoolmaster. 

59.  A  natural  gas  well. 

60.  The  inside  of  a  piano. 

61.  The  voting-booth. 

62.  A  greenback  compared  with  a  national  bank  note. 

63.  A  canal  lock. 

64.  How  orange  orchards  are  irrigated. 

65.  The  face  of  Napoleon  compared  with  that  of  Julius  Caesar. 

66.  Resemblances  in  the  faces  of  great  orators. 


Appendix  D,  363 


67.  A  Japanese  compared  with  a  Chinese. 

68.  A  Roman  banquet. 

69.  The  Alhambra. 

70.  An  English  cathedral. 

71.  The  three  most  famous  pictures  in  the  world. 

72.  The  Washington  monument. 

73.  The  park  at  night. 

74.  An  ocean  greyhound. 

75.  A  torpedo  boat. 

76.  The  old  garret. 

77.  A  salt  works. 

78.  The  flag-man  at  the  railway  crossing. 

79.  The  crowd  at  the  ferry  landing. 

80.  An  old-fashioned  ferry-boat. 

81.  The  heart  of  the  woods. 

82.  A  Dutch  windmill. 

83.  An  African  fetich. 

84.  Rare  postage  stamps. 

85.  How  my  bicycle  looked  after  the  collision. 

(h)  Essays  in  Narrative, 

1.  What  happened  at  the  caucus. 

2.  How  cider  is  made. 

3.  A  battle  between  flying-machines. 

4.  My  first  loaf  of  bread. 

5.  A  day  in  Lilliput. 

6.  Legends  of  Merlin. 

7.  The  story  of  Ruth. 

8.  The  charge  of  the  Light  Brigade. 

9.  The  signing  of  Magna  Charta. 

10.  The  building  of  the  boat. 

11.  Our  trolley-party. 

12.  How  I  learned  to  like  good  music. 

13.  A  trip  down  the  river. 

14.  The  evolution  of  the  modern  bicycle. 

15.  Taming  a  squirrel. 

16.  My  experiences  as  a  reporter. 

17.  A  moonlight  ride. 


364  Composition-Rhetoric, 

18.  A  runaway. 

19.  Landing  a  big  fish. 

20.  A  visit  to  the  falls. 

21.  An  extraordinary  dream. 

22.  Why  I  was  tardy. 

23.  A  singular  coincidence. 

24.  My  ghost. 

25.  A  break-down  on  the  road. 

26.  Flying  the  big  kite. 

27.  A  trip  to  the  top  of  the  water-tower. 

28.  How  a  railway  is  built. 

29.  How  I  caught  the  train. 

30.  How  the  nest  was  made. 

31.  Mending  the  clock. 

32.  What  I  remember  of  my  earliest  childhood. 

33.  Strange  history  of  a  dog. 

34.  How  I  tried  to  find  my  friend  John  Smith  in  Chicago. 

35.  A  visit  to  a  clairvoyant. 

36.  Where  I  found  my  knife. 

37.  The  big  storm. 

38.  The  fish  I  left  behind  me. 

39.  A  narrow^  escape. 

40.  Where  our  grapes  went  to. 

41.  How  the  fire  started. 

42.  How  I  earned  my  first  dollar. 

43.  The  return  of  the  birds. 

44.  How  my  friend  Blank  sharpens  a  lead-pencil. 

45.  A  struggle  with  a  fountain-pen. 

46.  Selling  tickets  for  the  concert. 

47.  The  tramp's  story. 

48.  How  we  harnessed  the  old  horse. 

49.  A  fashionable  call. 

50.  Caught  in  the  rain. 

(c)   Essays  in  Exposition. 

1.  Important  city  ordinances. 

2.  Why  workmen  strike. 

3.  Uses  of  a  royal  figure-head. 


Appendix  D,  365 

4.  What  the  Greeks  knew  about  music. 

5.  Habits  of  ants. 

6.  Principle  of  the  low-pressure  steam-engine. 

7.  Comparison  of  a  dynamo  and  a  motor. 

8.  How  a  ship  sails  against  the  wind. 

9.  Cause  of  the  moon's  phases. 

10.  How  electricity  has  affected  the  price  of  horses. 

11.  Condition  of  the  roads  in  this  neighborhood. 

12.  Diseases  of  flowers. 

13.  Movements  of  comets. 

14.  What  are  sun-spots  ? 

15.  Uses  of  the  spectroscope. 

16.  W^hy  does  not  the  sun  go  out  ? 

17.  What  is  a  storm  centre? 

18.  Weather  signals. 

19.  Why  the  tide  rises. 

20.  The  rings  of  Saturn. 

21.  Why  we  see  only  one  side  of  the  moon. 

22.  How  to  determine  the  height  of  a  building  by  geometry. 

23.  Construction  of  a  binocular  microscope. 

24.  What  is  a  copyright? 

25.  The  Bertillon  method  of  identifying  criminals. 

26.  Why  men  become  tramps. 

27.  Laws  that  young  people  ought  to  know. 

28.  The  eight-hour  question. 

29.  The  veto  power. 

30.  Powers  of  the  English  premier. 

31.  The  Chiltern  Hundreds. 

32.  How  new  money  gets  into  circulation. 

33.  Who  is  entitled  to  a  pension  ? 

34.  How  to  obtain  a  position  in  the  Civil  Service. 

35.  Causes  of  financial  panics. 

36.  Speed  of  railway  trains. 

37.  Dangers  of  hypnotism. 

38.  Our  city  school  system. 

39.  Benefits  of  manual  training. 

40.  Spelling-reform. 

41.  Popular  songs. 

42.  How  water-mains  are  injured  by  currents  of  electricit}' . 


366  Composition-Rhetoric. 

43.  The  flora  of  the  school-ground. 

44.  Kinds  of  dogs  in  our  town. 

45.  How  to  patent  an  invention. 

46.  The  Australian  ballot  system. 

47.  Why  does  cider  become  "  hard  "? 

48.  The  single-tax  theory. 

49.  How  Canada  is  governed. 

50.  The  Indians  of  Alaska. 

51.  How  much  power  has  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission? 

52.  The  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  compared  with  the 

Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

53.  What  is  meant  by  "protection  for  revenue  only"? 

54.  Imperial  federation. 

55.  Reciprocity. 

56.  How  the  President  is  elected. 

57.  Why  private  post-offices  are  prohibited  by  the  government. 

58.  What  is  a  kindergarten? 

59.  A  definition  of  slang. 

60.  Queer  pronunciations. 

61.  How  to  read  the  newspaper. 

(d)   Essays  in  Argument. 

1.  The  summer  vacation  should  be  shortened. 

2.  Bicycles  should  be  carried  free  by  the  railroads. 

3.  Is  lynching  ever  justifiable  ? 

4.  The  United  States  should  adopt  a  general  policy  of  annexation. 

5.  Lincoln  was  the  greatest  of  orators. 

6.  The  nihilists  are  justified  in  seeking  the  life  of  the  Czar. 

7.  The  President  should  be  elected  by  popular  vote. 

8.  A  voter  should  always  support  the  regular  party  nominees. 

9.  The  civil  war  should  have  been  prevented. 

10.  Alaska  is  not  a  paying  investment. 

11.  The  government  should  loan  money  to  farmers. 

12.  Protection  lowers  wages. 

13.  Strikes  injure  the  cause  of  labor. 

14.  Boycotting  should  be  regarded  as  a  crime. 

15.  All  land  should  be  owned  by  the  government. 

16.  Supreme  judges  should  be  elected  by  popular  vote. 


Appendix  D,  867 

17.  Foreign  skilled  labor  should  be  kept  out  of  the  United  States. 

18.  Nevada  should  be  merged  into  California. 

19.  Voting  should  be  compulsory. 

20.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  is  a  more  important  docu- 

ment than  Magna  Charta. 

21.  This  country  should  have  been  named  Columbia. 

22.  Ought  we  to  adopt  a  national  flower  ? 

23.  German  is  a  more  valuable  acquirement  than  Latin. 

24.  Teachers  should  be  made  a  part  of  the  Civil  Service. 

25.  The  high  school  course  should  be  shortened  to  three  years. 

26.  Examinations  should  be  done  away  with. 

27.  Arctic  exploration  has  not  paid. 

28.  Executions  should  be  secret. 

29.  Livingstone  was  a  greater  explorer  than  Stanley. 

30.  The  earth  is  superior  to  the  other  planets  as  a  habitation  for 

man. 

31.  Grant  was  a  greater  general  than  Napoleon  (Julius  Caesar, 

Frederick  the  Great,  Wellington,  Lee). 

32.  A  great  poet  need  not  be  a  good  man. 

33.  Novel-reading  is  a  waste  of  time. 

34.  The  population  of  this  city  will  double  in years. 

35.  Trotting  horses  will  never  go  faster  than  a  mile  in  two  minutes. 

36.  The  office  of  poet-laureate  should  be  abolished. 

37.  The  education  of  girls  should  be  different  from  that  of  boys. 

38.  Sunday  observance  should  be  compulsory. 

39.  Alms-giving   should  be   exclusively  practised   by  charitable 

organizations. 

40.  Ireland's  demands  are  unreasonable. 

41.  Inheritances  should  be  taxed. 

42.  Speculation  in  stocks  is  an  unmitigated  evil. 

43.  Horace  Greeley  would  have  made  a  good  president. 

44.  The  practice  of  tipping  should  be  discountenanced. 

45.  Professor  Henry  was  the  real  inventor  of  the  electric  telegraph. 

46.  Who  discovered  anaesthesia  ? 

47.  What  is  the  best  kind  of  street-paving? 

48.  W^hat  is  the  best  make  of  bicycle? 

49.  Advantages  of  a  multiplying  reel. 

50.  Cooking  and  sewing  should  be  taught  in  the  schools. 


APPENDIX   E. 

CAPITALS,    PUNCTUATION,   ETC. 

General  Rules  for  Capitals. 
The  following  words  should  begin  w^ith  capitals  :  — 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  and  paragraph. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period  ;  and,  usually,  after  the  interro- 
gation point  and  the  exclamation  point. 

3.  Divine  names;  as  God,  Jehovah,  the  Supreme  Being. 

4.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  rivers,  oceans,  ships;  as, 
Franklin,  Chicago,  Mississippi,  Atlantic,  the  Monitor. 

5.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places;  as, 
English,  French,  Roman,  American. 

6.  The  first  word  of  an  exact  quotation  in  a  direct  form ;  as,  he 
said,  "  There  will  be  war." 

7.  The  pronoun  I  and  the  interjection  O ! 

8.  Terms  of  great  historical  importance  are  usually  capital- 
ized ;  as,  the  Reformation,  the  Civil  War,  the  Whigs,  the  Revolu- 
tion. 

General  Rules  for  Punctuation. 

The  comma,  semi-colon,  and  colon  mark  the  three  degrees  of 
separation  in  the  parts  of  a  sentence;  the  comma  the  smallest 
degree,  the  semi-colon  a  greater  degree,  and  the  colon  the  greatest 
degree.     To  illustrate :  — 

Rhetoric  is  based  upon  Logic,  Grammar,  and  ^Esthetics. 

Rhetoric  is  based  upon  Logic,  which  deals  with  the  laws  of 
thought;  upon  Grammar,  which  presents  the  facts  and  rules  of 
correct  language  ;  and  upon  Esthetics,  which  investigates  the  prin- 
ciples of  beauty. 

368 


Appendix  E.  869 

Rhetoric  is  based  upon  the  following  sciences :  Logic,  which 
deals  with  the  laws  of  thought;  Grammar,  which  presents  the 
facts  and  rules  of  correct  language;  and  Esthetics,  which  investi- 
gates the  principles  of  beauty. 


Rules  for  the  Comma. 
A  comma  is  used  in  the  following  instances  :  — 

1.  To  separate  grammatically  independent  elements  from  the 
context;  as,  ''  Rejoice,  young  man  !  " 

2.  To  separate  intermediate,  transposed,  and  parenthetical  ele- 
ments from  the  context ;  as,  "  Even  good  men,  they  say,  sometimes 
act  like  brutes." 

3.  To  separate  expressions  in  apposition  from  the  context ;  as, 
"  Washington,  the  first  President,  served  two  terms." 

4.  To  separate  contrasted  words  or  phrases,  and  words  or 
phrases  in  pairs ;  as,  *'  We  live  in  deeds,  not  years."  "  Sink  or 
swin),  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my  hand  and  my  heart 
to  this  vote." 

5.  To  mark  the  omission  of  words ;  as,  "  In  war  he  was  warlike  ; 
in  peace,  peaceable." 

6.  Before  short  and  informal  quotations;  as,  ^'He  shouted, 
*  Come  in  ! ' " 

Note.  —  It  is  quite  possible  to  use  the  comma  too  frequently;  as,  "It 
is  well  known,  that,  when  water  is  cooled,  below  a  certain  point,  contrac- 
tion ceases,  and  expansion  begins."  Better:  **  It  is  well  known  that  when 
water  is  cooled  below  a  certain  point,  contraction  ceases  and  expansion 
begins." 

Rules  for  the  Semi-Colon.  • 
A  semi-colon  is  used  in  the  following  instances :  — 

1.  To  separate  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  when  they 
are  complex  or  loosely  connected,  or  when  they  contain  commas. 

2.  To  separate  short  sentences  closely  connected  in  meaning. 

3.  To  introduce  an  example,  before  as. 

4.  To  separate  clauses  having  a  common  dependence.  Illustra- 
tions of  these  rules :  "  Science  declares  that  no  particle  of  matter 


870  Composition-Rhetoric, 

can  be  destroyed ;  that  each  atom  has  its  place  in  the  universe ; 
and  that,  in  seeking  that  place,  each  obeys  certain  fixed  laws." 
"When  education  shall  be  made  a  qualification  for  suffrage;  when 
politicians  shall  give  place  to  statesmen  ;  —  then,  and  not  till  then, 
will  the  highest  development  of  our  country  be  reached." 


Rules  for  the  Colon. 
The  colon  is  used  in  the  following  instances  :  — 

1.  To  introduce  several  particulars  complex  in  form,  in  apposi- 
tion to  a  general  term,  and  separated  from  one  another  by  semi- 
colons.    (Already  illustrated.) 

2.  To  introduce  long  formal  quotations.  If  the  quotation  begins 
a  new  paragraph  a  dash  should  be  used  instead  of  a  colon. 

Rules  for  the  Period. 
The  period  is  used  in  the  following  instances :  — 

1.  To  mark  the  completion  of  a  declarative  sentence. 

2.  After  abbreviations ;  as,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Vt.,  Ala. 

Rules  for  the  Interrogation  Point. 
The  interrogation  point  is  used 

1.  After  every  direct  question  ;  as,  "  Will  you  come  ?  "  "  You 
have  been  to  Niagara?"  ''When  was  such  a  promise  made?  By 
whom?" 

2.  In  parentheses  to  express  doubt ;  as,  "  In  the  time  of  Homer, 
850  (?)  B.C." 

Rules  for  the  Exclamation  Point. 
The  exclamation  point  is  used 

1.  To  express  strong  emotion ;  as,  "  He  is  dead,  the  sweet 
musician ! " 

2.  To  express  doubt  or  sarcasm  ;  as,  "  That  man  a  poet !  " 

3.  After  interjections ;  as,  "  Oh  !  "     ''  O  my  Country  I " 


^c^ulrVii.'  ^ 


t-' 


/ 


..Jmam^^ 


APPENDIX   F 


I.     TYPES    OF    DISCOURSE. 
a.   DESCRIPTION. 
/     Province  and  Kinds  of  Description. 

Description  has  for  its  purpose  the  presentation,  in  language, 
of  a  picture  of  some  material  objectcmental  state,  or  character. 
The  object,  state,  or  character  may  be  either  real  or  imagined  ; 
but,  in  both  cases,  it  is  presented  as  if  real,  and  the  same  laws 
govern  both  kinds  of  description. 

l^     Selection  of  a  Subject. 

The  value  of  a  description  depends  upon  clearness  of  observa- 
tion and  effectiveness  in  reporting  what  is  observed.  The  advan- 
tage is  evident,  therefore,  of  selecting  objects  for  description  which 
the  writer  has  himself  seen,  mental  states  which  he  has  himself 
experienced,  characters  with  which  he  has  himself  been  brought 
in  contact.  Objects  and  characters  close  at  hand  afford  the  best 
materials  for  description.  A  room,  a  scene,  a  face,  a  picture,  a 
building,  a  character,  well  known  to  the  describer,  furnish  better 
subjects  than  similar  themes  taken  from  history  or  reported  at 
second  hand. 

O       Outlining  the  Subject. 

Material  objects  carry  their  own  outlines  with  them.  The  ob- 
server discovers  the  main  outlines  of  the  object  he  wishes  to 
describe  and  arranges  them  in  the  order  in  which  they  appear  to 
him.  As  the  main  features  of  any  material  object  are  few  in 
number,  the  corresponding  headings  in  the  outline  will  be  few, 
and  distinctly  stated.     The  lesser  details,  so  far  as  these  require 

371 


v^AJOJIKjUI 


nposition-li  ketone . 


372  Composition 

mention,  will  be  arranged  as  subdivisions  of  the  main  headings  to 
which  they  respectively  belong.  In  selecting  features  for  the  main 
headings,  prominence  js  the  rule  that  governs ;  in  selecting  and 
arranging  the  details  for  the  sub-headings,  the  order  of  proximity 
is  to  be  followed.  Descriptions  of  character  furnish  a  less  obvious 
outline.  Here  the  two  or  three  chief  characteristics,  carefully  dis- 
tinguished, give  the  main  headings.  These  larger  headings  are 
presented  usually  in  the  order  of  their  prominence,  the  most 
prominent  coming  last ;  lesser  traits  are  arranged  as  subdivisions 
under  these  in  the  order  of  similarity  or  of  contrast. 

l^        Purpose  in  Description. 

Every  descriptive  essay  has  a  purpose,  though  generally  the  pur- 
pose is  not  directly  expressed.  If  expressed  at  all,  it  will  usually 
be  in  the  conclusion  of  the  essay.  The  purpose  may  be  merely  to 
convey  information  ;  yet  even  here  it  will  be  information^  a  cer- 
tain end,  and  the  whole  description  will  show  what  the  end  is.''^ 
botamsT  and  a  landscape-gardener  will  describe  a  tree  in  different 
ways.  The  purpose  may  be  no  more  definite  than  to  produce  a 
favorable  or  an  unfavorable  impression  of  the  object  described, 
and  yet,  though  nowhere  avowed  in  the  essay,  it  will  color  the 
whole  description.  For  example,  the  description  of  a  school-room 
may  all  tend  to  show  the  need  of  improvement  in  lighting,  care,  or 
ventilation.  A  scene  may  be  described  so  as  to  produce  the  same 
feeling  of  sympathy  or  abhorrence  that  was  produced  in  the 
observer.  A  character  description  may  excite  admiration,  or  rev- 
erence, or  awe,  or  detestation.  It  is  the  hidden  purpose  which 
gives  cohesion,  unity,  effectiveness,  and  individuality  to  a  descrip- 
tive jessay. 


r 


Point  of  View. 


The  purpose  determines  the  point  of  view  and  gives  charac- 
ter and  coloring  to  the  whole  essay.  The  expression, '  point  of 
view,*  is  used  in  two  senses.  In  one  sense  it  is  to  be  understood 
literally.  In  describing  a  scene,  for  instance,  the  observer  takes  his 
stand  (in  thought)  at  some  point,  and  describes  the  elements  that 
make  up  the  scene  as  they  appear  to  him  from  that  point.     It  may 


Appendix  F,      Types  of  Discourse.  373 

be  necessary,  in  describing  extensive  objects  (as  a  large  building 
or  an  art  gallery),  for  the  describer  to  change  his  point  of  view, 
but  the  imaginary  path  which  he  follows  should  be  clearly  marked 
and  due  notice  of  each  change  should  be  given  to  the  reader  by 
some  such  expression  as, ''  Passing  now  to  the  interior  of  the  build- 
ing," etc.  But  a  wider  meaning  is  evident  in  the  expression, '  point 
of  view,'  when  we  say  that  a  description  is  written  from  the  point 
of  view  of  a  careless,  or  interested,  or  sympathetic  observer ;  or 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  scientist,  or  the  reformer,  or  the 
teacher;  the  expression  here  referring  to  the  spirit  or  bias  of 
the  observer. 


I 


Selection  of  Details. 


The  purpose  also  influences  the  selection  of  details.  The  few 
details  will  be  chosen  which  are  most  suggestive  and  characteristic 
of  the  thing  described,  and  while  enough  will  be  said  to  give  a 
unified  picture,  those  details  wdll  be  especially  emphasized  which 
tend  to  bring  out  the  writer's  purpose  and  to  make  the  reader  see 
as  the  writer  saw.  Whatever  the  purpose  may  be,  the  points  to 
select  for  special  mention  are  not  those  which  the  object  to  be 
described  has  in  common  with  other  objects  of  the  same  class,  but 
those  in  which  it  differs  and  is  peculiar. 


1 


Sequence  and  Grouping. 


The  order  in  which  the  details  are  presented  is  determined 
largely  by  the  character  of  the  thing  described ;  but  this  order 
may  be  modified  by  the  purpose  of  the  writer.  In  describing  a 
material  object  the  general  impression  or  effect  produced  upon  the 
observer  at  the  first  view  naturally  comes  first :  the  impression  of 
greatness,  massiveness,  beauty,  gloom,  or  brightrless,  as  the  case 
may  be  ;  then  the  color,  as  this  is  one  of  the  first  things  noticed  ; 
next  the  general  plan,  shape,  and  size,  as  these  give  the  reader  a 
comprehensive  outline  into  w^hich  he  may  fit  the  details  as  they 
are  mentioned ;  finally,  the  material,  style,  arrangement,  furnish- 
ings, and  use.  Lesser  details  will  be  mentioned  only  so  far  as 
they  are  peculiar  or  are  necessary  to  a  unified  picture,  and  they 
will  be  presented  in  small  groups  in  connection  with  some  of  the 


374  Oomposition- Rhetoric. 

main  headings,  or,  if  mentioned  by  themselves,  will  be  used  to 
illustrate  some  characteristic  of  the  object  described,  such  as  con- 
venience, adaptedness  to  use,  ornamentation,  or  plainness. 

h.   NARRATIVE. 

A  narrative  is  the  presentation  in  language  of  successive  related 
events  occurring  in  time. I  Description  represents  an  object  as  it 
appeared  at  a  single  moment  of  time ;  narration  represents  it  as 
undergoing  changes.  Every  narrative  involves  some  description  ; 
a  history,  for  example,  requires  much  descriptive  matter ;  but  here, 
as  in  other  forms  of  narration,  the  descriptive  matter  is  merely  sub- 
sidiary and  explanatory,  and  is  kept  subordinate  to  the  main  pur- 
pose of  reciting  events  as  they  occur,  one  after  another. 

I        Province  and  Kinds. 

The  field  covered  by  narration  is  large,  comprising  biography, 
history,  fiction,  and  a  large  class  of  poetry.  The  simplest  kind  is 
represented  by  the  biography  in  which  there  is  but  one  main  char- 
acter, whose  fortunes  are  followed  through  life.  Akin  to  biography, 
in  treatment,  are  imaginative  and  fanciful  themes,  such  as  "  Expe- 
riences in  the  Life  of  a  Bank  Note."  History  and  fiction  deal  with 
larger  themes,  and  the  interest  is  carried  along  several  lines. 


% 


Selection  of  a  Subject. 


Here,  as  in  description,  there  is  great  opportunity  for  originality 
in  the  choice  of  a  subject.  Events  and  experiences  in  the  student's 
own  life  furnish  the  best  material  for  first  efforts.  Later  on,  the 
short  story  and  the  history  of  organizations  in  which  he  has  had  a 
part  may  be  tried.  • 

.^        Outlining  the  Subject. 

In  narratives  of  a  simple  form  in  which  there  is  but  one  main 
character,  and  in  which  the  interest  is  confined  to  a  single  line,  the 
critical  points  of  time  furnish  the  basis  of  the  outline  structure  and 
the  main  heads  of  the  outline.  The  narrative  of  a  personal  advent- 
ure will  serve  to  illustrate.     If  the  adventure  is  worth  recounting, 


Types  of  Discourse,  375 

it  will  have  a  centre  of  interest,  a  culminating  point  to  which  the 
whole  narrative  looks  forward.  This  fact  suggests  three  distinct 
points  for  a  single  outline  of  such  an  adventure.  The  first  main 
heading  w  ill  include  the  events  that  lead  up  to  this  centre  of  inter- 
est ;  the  next  will  stand  for  all  that  belongs  to  the  critical  point  of 
the  adventure,  the  climax  or  height  of  interest ;  and  the  third  will 
include  the  result,  conclusion,  or  explanation.  Naturally,  these 
three  headings  are  placed  in  the  order  of  time,  and  once  these  are 
determined,  the  lesser  details  will  arrange  themselves  under  the 
main  headings  to  which  they  respectively  belong. 

Certain  more  abstract  narratives  require  different  treatment  and 
different  planning.  Take,  for  example,  the  class  of  themes  repre- 
sented by  subjects  of  this  kind :  The  History  of  the  Ballot  Reform 
Movement;  The  Growth  of  the  Poetic  Spirit  in  Robert  Burns. 
Here  the  distinct  elements  of  the  History  or  of  the  Growth  are  dis- 
cerned by  analysis,  and  after  being  arranged  in  the  order  of  causes 
and  effects,  they  are  set  down  as  the  main  heads  of  the  outline. 
The  order  of  causes  and  effects  may,  and  often  does,  coincide  with 
the  time  order;  but,  if  not,  it  is  the  time  order  that  must  yield. 
In  such  themes,  it  is  often  best  to  take  up  one  line  of  cause  and 
effect  and  arrange  the  selected  events  that  belong  to  it,  in  the  time 
order  as  sub-heads ;  then  a  second  line  of  cause  and  effect  with  its 
selected  events,  and  so  on.  This  is  the  method,  too,  of  some  of  our 
best  histories  and  of  all  novels. 


i- 


Unity  and  Selection. 


As  in  description,  so  in  narration  the  writer's  point  of  view  (in 
the  larger  sense  of  that  term)  will  influence  his  selection  of  details 
and  his  manner  of  presenting  them.  The  fact  that  a  narrative  is 
told  implies  that  it  possesses  a  peculiar,  individual,  and  unique  in- 
terest. This  indicates  the  rule  for  the  selection  of  details.  Details 
which  differ  from  the  ordinary  give  character  to  a  narrative  and 
require  the  most  important  setting.  There  is  even  more  oppor- 
tunity for  detecting  and  using  peculiar  characteristics  in  narrative 
than  in  descriptive  writing :  it  is  the  unexpected  that  often  hap- 
pens, and  much  is  made  of  this  fact  by  writers  of  fiction.  Ability 
and  willingness  to  omit  or  curtail  what  is  usual  and  common,  that 


876  Composition- Rhetoric. 

the  attention  may  be  held  to  what  is  unique  and  peculiar,  are  dis- 
cernible in  the  work  of  every  good  story-teller.  The  culminating 
point,  which  gives  the  narrative  distinction,  is  kept  in  view  all  the 
time,  and  nothing  is  admitted  which  does  not  carry  the  narrative 
forward  towards  it.  This  point  furnishes  the  centre  of  unity  to  a 
narrative.  When  it  is  reached,  the  reason  is  apparent  for  all  the 
details  and  incidents  that  have  been  previously  mentioned  in  the 
naiTative.  Even  the  descriptive  digressions  are  seen  to  have  played 
an  important,  though  subordinate,  part  in  leading  to  the  culmi- 
nation, y 

if 

^        Sequence  and  Grouping. 

The  narrative  writer  sees  clearly  (what  his  reader  cannot  see) 
the  end  for  which  all  the  incidents  are  recounted  and  to  which 
they  all  contribute.  This  suggests  the  chief  rule  of  sequence : 
That  sequence  of  events  is  best  in  which  each  occurrence  stated  is 
necessary  to  the  proper  understanding  of  its  successor.  In  simple 
narratives,  w^here  the  interest  is  undivided,  this  rule  is  easy  to  fol- 
low ;  but  in  complex  narratives,  such  as  the  novel  and  the  history, 
sequence  is  harder  to  secure  because  of  the  fact  that  several  con- 
temporaneous lines  of  interest  must  be  kept  up.  The  writer  will 
in  such  cases  show  his  sense  for  sequence  by  his  method  of  group- 
ing facts  and  events.  One  line  of  interest  will  be  carried  forward 
to  a  point  at  which  all  the  lines  of  interest  meet ;  then  another 
will  be  brought  to  the  same  point ;  and  so  on.  A  new  start  w  ill 
then  be  taken  to  the  next  goal  of  interest,  and  this  process  will  be 
repeated  until  the  culminating  point  is  reached.  In  the  historical 
essay,  these  various  meeting-places  are  indicated  and  emphasized 
by  summaries  which  prepare  for  the  new  start.  Thus  the  grouping 
of  facts  is  by  periods  of  time  and  by  lines  of  interest,  each  period 
being  fixed  by  the  writer  with  reference  to  the  culmination. 


{o 


Suspense  and  Movement. 


This  topic  applies  mainly  to  a  story  with  a  complicated  plot, 
and  to  an  extensive  history.  The  management  of  a  narrative  of 
either  kind  will  involve  attention  to  both  suspense  and  movement. 
Suspense  retards  the  progress  of  the  narrative  and  movement  accel- 


Appendix  F,      Types  of  Discourse.  377 

erates  it.  Suspense  is  advisable  just  before  the  culminating  point 
of  interest  is  reached,  and  it  is  secured  usually  by  introducing 
descriptive  details  or  explanations.  Sometimes  suspense  is  secured 
by  beginning  at  some  point  along  in  the  story,  the  events  leading 
up  to  the  first  scene  being  afterwards  introduced  as  an  explana- 
tion, or  as  a  part  of  a  subsequent  conversation  between  two  of  the 
characters.  Description  detains  the  attention,  but  it  must  be  rele- 
vant, or  its  introduction  is  resented  by  the  reader.  In  most  parts 
of  a  narrative,  however,  movement  rather  than  suspense  is  desir- 
able, and  this  is  secured  Jby^ reducing  or  omitting  descriptions,  by 
hurrying  over  details  and  condensing  lesser  actions  and  events  as 
much  as  possible.  Especially  is  movement  desirable  when  the  cul- 
mination or  principal  action  is  reached,  and,  in  general,  those  parts 
of  a  narrative  which  portray  rapid  action  should  show  it  by  a 
hurried  manner  of  treatment. 

c.   EXPOSITION 

Exposition  has  been  defined  as  "  such  an  analysis  of  a  general 
term  as  will  make  clear  to  the  mind  the  general  notion  of  which  it 
is  the  sign."  It  takes  the  general  term  Music,  for  instance,  and 
seeks  to  explain  and  set  forth  clearly  what  music  is,  what  are  its 
essential  qualities,  how  much  it  includes,  what  it  excludes,  how  it 
differs  from  other  fine  arts,  into  what  kinds  it  is  divided,  —  in 
short,  exposition  seeks  to  discover  and  set  forth  an  adequate  defini- 
tion of  music,  to  give  a  logical  division  into  kinds,  and  to  define 
and  explain  the  various  kinds.  Or,  it  takes  a  general  proposition 
such  as  "  Education  is  beneficial  in  all  the  pursuits  of  life,"  and, 
without  assuming  the  truth  or  falsity  of  the  proposition,  it  seeks 
to  answer  the  question.  What  is  education?  to  analyze  it  into  its 
elements,  and  to  classify  the  pursuits  of  life,  leaving  to  argument 
the  work  of  determining  whether  the  proposition  is  true  or  false. 
Thus,  education  having  been  defined  as  training,  the  various  kinds 
of  training  having  been  determined,  and  the  pursuits  of  life  hav- 
ing been  classified,  the  results  of  the  exposition  of  this  proposition 
might  be  outlined  as  follows:  — 

'  the  mind  ^         (  the  languages  "I  (  the  professions 

the  heart  r  in  -    the  sciences      |-  is  beneficial  in  \  the  trades 
.  the  body  J         I  the  arts  J  I  and  commerce 


Education,  or 
Training  of 


378  Composition- Rhetoric, 

Kinds  and  Uses. 

It  is  evident  that  the  kind  of  exposition  illustrated  above  is  use- 
ful mainly  for  planning  and  outlining  a  subject.  It  is  concerned 
w^ith  laying  the  ground-work  for  subsequent  discussion,  description, 
or  narration.  It  analyzes,  defines,  divides,  and  classifies ;  it  plays 
an  important  part  in  planning  every  essay  that  is  written,  whether 
in  description,  narration,  or  argumentation.  These  methods  may 
all  be  included  under  the  single  designation  of  Scientific  Exposition. 

There  is,  however,  another  kind  of  exposition,  of  a  less  rigidly 
scientific  character,  which  we  shall  call  Popular  Exposition,  and 
under  which  may  be  included  the  Didactic  Essay,  the  Conversa- 
tional Essay,  and  the  Critical  Essay.  These  we  shall  discuss 
under  the  headings  indicated. 

The   Didactic   Essay. 

This  is  the  type  most  frequently  attempted.  It  takes  a  clearly 
stated  proposition  as  its  subject,  and  attempts  to  establish  it  by 
one  or  more  of  the  various  means  of  development,  such  as  defini- 
tion, contrast,  explanation,  illustration,  particular  instances,  etc. 
Most  of  the  essays  that  appear  in  such  reviews  as  the  North  Ameri- 
can, the  Forum,  the  Popular  Science  Monthly,  the  Contemporary, 
and  the  Fortnightly  belong  to  this  class.  The  essays  of  Macaulay, 
De  Quincey,  and  Emerson,  for  the  most  part,  belong  here.  Select- 
ing a  subject  within  one's  powers,  stating  the  subject  clearly  and 
accurately,  careful  thinking,  gaining  information  by  reading  and 
conversation,  and  outlining  before  beginning  the  work  of  composi- 
tion, are  of  the  greatest  importance  in  writing  essays  of  this  kind. 

The   Conversational  Essay. 

The  conversational  essay  is  illustrated  in  the  essays  of  Charles 
Lamb,  Steele,  Addison,  Holmes,  and  Thackeray.  It  is  generally 
loose  in  structure,  and  gives  the  personal  impressions,  whims,  and 
fancies  of  the  essayist  in  the  easy  confidential  tone  of  conversation. 
The  subjects  chosen  are  usually  of  a  light  character,  and  a  whimsi- 
cal view  is  n9t  infrequently  presented.  To  write  good  essays  of 
this  type  requires  considerable  original  talent,  or  long  training,  or 


Appendix  F,     Types  of  Discourse,  379 

the  combination  of  the  two ;  for,  in  spite  of  their  seeming  irregu- 
larity, the  best  of  these  essays  are  underlaid  by  a  carefully  planned 
framework,  and  guided  in  their  erratic  flights  by  a  profound  sense 
of  artistic  form.  The  beginner,  therefore,  until  he  has  learned  to 
lay  the  solid  foundations  of  essay-structure,  or  has  developed  to 
some  degree  a  natural  sense  for  structural  unity,  will  do  well 
to  avoid  the  writing  of  essays  of  this  character. 


The  CRiTiCifL  Essay 

The  aim  of  the  critical  essay  is  to  estimate  the  value  of  a  work 
of  literature  or  art,  and  to  judge  it  by  the  principles  of  the  class  to 
which  it  belongs,  pointing  out  both  excellences  and  defects.  It  is 
evident  that  real  criticism  implies  wide  and  thorough  knowledge 
on  the  part  of  the  critic  as  well  as  a  nature  capable  of  entering 
with  sympathetic  and  appreciative  interest  into  the  thoughts  and 
feelings  of  others,  while  at  the  same  time  preserving  his  own  indi- 
viduality of  judgment  and  opinion.  The  works  of  Ruskin  give  the 
best-known  (if  not  the  best)  art  criticism ;  while  in  literary  criti- 
cism the  names  of  Arnold,  Dowden,  Stephen,  Lowell,  Stedman, 
and  Pater  are  most  familiar. 


d.  ARGUMENTATION. 

The  argumentative  essay  devotes  itself  to  proving  the  truth  or 
falsity  of  a  proposition.  "  An  argument,"  says  Bain,  "  is  a  fact, 
principle,  or  a  set  of  facts  or  of  principles  adduced  as  evidence  of 
some  other  fact  or  principle."  To  illustrate,  the  fact  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  prisoners  in  our  penitentiaries  are  ignorant  men 
is  adduced  ^s  evidence  of  the  principle  that  ignorance  breeds 
crime.  It  is  evident  that  to  be  of  value  as  an  argument  the  state- 
ment as  to  the  large  proportion  of  ignorant  men  among  the  pris- 
oners in  the  penitentiaries  must,  first,  either  be  admitted  to  be 
true  or  must  be  shown  to  be  true  by  statistics  ;  secondly,  the  same 
statement  must  also  be  admitted  or  shown  by  statistics  to  have 
been  generally  true  for  a  long  period  and  likely  to  be  true  in  the 
future.     Both  these  conditions  are  essential  to  a  valid  argument. 


should  be  elected  by  popular  vote. 


380  Co7npo8ition- Rhetoric. 

The  Proposition. 

The  proposition  to  be  proved  should  be  clearly  and  accurately 
stated  in  the  affirmative  form.  A  close  analysis  of  the  terms  of  a 
proposition  will  sometimes  indicate  a  line  of  argument  to  be  pur- 
sued, and  will  very  frequently  furnish  a  good  approach  to  the  main 
discussion. 

A  complex  proposition  may  be  proved  by  dividing  it  into  its 
constituent  propositions  and  proving  each  of  these.  The  proposi- 
tion "Judges  should  be  elected  by  popular  vote"  would  require 
such  a  division,  since  the  con^derations  which  tend  to  make  the 
proposed  step  desirable  are  different  for  different  classes  of  judges, 
and  the  possible  objections  to  the  proposition  are  different  for  the 
different  classes  also. 

Thus  the  division  might  be 
[  of  U.  S.  courts 
of  State  courts 
Judges  \  of  County  courts 
of  Police  courts 
etc. 

Classification  and  Kinds  of  Arguments. 

Proofs  applied  immediately  to  the  establishment  of  the  propo- 
sition are  called  direct  proofs.  Proof  is  indirect  when  it  is  applied 
to  the  overthrow^  of  objections ;  indirect  proof  is  called  refutation. 
This  classification  is  based  on  the  purpose  to  which  proofs  are 
applied,  on  the  use  made  of  them.  Whether  direct  or  indirect, 
proofs  are  of  three  kinds  :  a  priori,  signs,  and  examples. 

In  a  priori  proofs  (sometimes  called  proofs  from  antecedent 
probability)  the  reasoning  is  from  cause  to  effect,  or  from  a  gen- 
eral law  to  the  results  of  that  law. 

The  prevalence  of  intemperance  in  a  community  is  an  a  priori  proof  of 
the  existence  of  wretchedness  in  that  community,  because  intemperance  is 
a  cause  of  wretchedness. 

Bountiful  crops  throughout  the  country  furnish  an  a  priori  proof  that 
business  will  be  good,  since  we  know  that  these  are  a  potent  cause  of  gen- 
eral prosperity.    Arguments  in  regard  to  future  events  are  always  a  priori. 

General  bad  character  in  an  accuser,  long-standing  hatred  on  his  part 
toward  the  accused,  the  existence  of  a  wicked  motive  in  making  the  accu- 
sation, is  a  priori  proof  that  his  accusation  is  false. 


Appendix  F,      Types  of  Discourse.  381 

The  validity  of  an  a  priori  proof  depends  upon  the  certainty 
that  the  cause  assigned  is  adequate  and  operative.  If  it  can  be 
shown  that  the  cause  assigned  is  inadequate  or  inoperative,  or  hin- 
dered from  producing  its  natural  result,  the  argument  is  impaired 
to  that  extent. 

Signs  are  proofs  from  an  eifect  to  a  condition  so  connected  with 
the  effect  that  the  existence  of  the  effect  implies  the  existence  of 
the  condition. 

Widespread  ignorance,  pauperism,  and  crime  in  a  country  are  signs 
going  to  show  the  falsity  of  the  proposition  that  that  country  is  ready  for 
self-government. 

Blood-stains  upon  the  clothing  of  a  man  accused  of  murder  are  signs  of 
his  guilt. 

Signs  are  merely  indications  or  circumstances,  and  are  always 
open  to  doubt.  What  is  known  as  circumstantial  evidence  is  a 
collection  of  a  priori  proofs  and  signs.  The  most  suspicious  cir- 
cumstances are  often  wholly  inconclusive.  If,  for  instance,  the 
blood-stains  upon  the  clothing  of  a  man  accused  of  murder  are 
clearly  accounted  for  in  some  other  way  than  by  the  supposition 
of  guilt,  doubt  is  cast  upon  the  validity  of  the  argument. 

The  same  signs  are  frequently  employed  for  opposite  ends.  One 
writer  regards  strikes  as  signs  that  the  influence  ot  trades  unions 
is  pernicious;  another  quotes  the  same  phenomena  as  signs  that 
the  trades  unions  have  given  the  working  classes  power  to  assert 
and,  in  some  cases,  to  maintain  their  rights. 

The  more  numerous  the  signs,  the  greater  their  value  as  argu- 
ments for  the  truth  of  a  proposition. 

Authority,  or  what  books  and  competent  persons  have  said, 
irrespective  of  particular  cases,  as  to  the  truth  or  falsity  of  a 
proposition,  and  testimony,  or  the  evidence  of  witnesses,  have 
been  classified  as  signs  by  some  writers ;  but  it  is  clear  that 
authority  and  testimony  may  be  a  priori  proof,  or  signs,  or  proof 
by  examples,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  proof  given  by  the 
authority  or  by  the  witness  testifying.  When  authorities  are 
quoted  to  support  a  statement,  reference  should  be  made  to  the 
edition,  volume,  and  page ;  and  in  general  only  those  authorities 
should  be  referred  to  who  are  acknoAvledged  to  be  competent  to 
speak  on  the  subject,  and  whose  works,  if  quoted,  are  accessible. 


382  Oomposition- Rhetoric. 

Concurrence  of  authorities  or  of  witnesses  as  to  the  truth  of  any 
matter  gives  special  force  to  this  kind  of  argument. 

Examples  of  the  truth  of  a  proposition  are  a  form  of  proof 
which  gains  its  power  on  the  principle  that  what  has  once  hap- 
pened under  certain  conditions  may  be  expected  to  happen  again 
under  like  conditions.  When  the  number  of  examples  adduced  is 
sufficiently  large  to  convince  us  that  the  whole  class  to  which  they 
belong  possess  the  same  property,  the  proof  is  called  Induction. 
If,  for  instance,  we  find  that  several  hundreds  of  roses  have  the 
same  number  of  petals  and  stamens,  and  conclude  that  all  roses 
of  the  same  class  have  the  same  number  of  petals  and  stamens  as 
those  examined,  we  have  a  case  of  Induction.  The  number  of 
examples  necessary  to  make  the  proof  of  a,  proposition  conclusive 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  proposition  "to  be  proved,  and  must 
be  decided  in  each  case  as  it  arises.  One  of  the  most  frequent  of 
faults  in  writing  is  a  hasty  generalization  from  too  few  examples. 
It  is  evidently  not  sufficient  to  cite  the  cases  of  Homer  and  Milton 
in  proof  of  the  proposition  that  blindness  induces  the  growth  of 
the  poetic  spirit  in  a  man.  A  form  of  the  argument  by  example 
is  that  which  asserts  that,  if  a  principle  is  true  in  an  admitted 
case,  much  more  will  it  be  true  in  the  case  cited  when  the  con- 
ditions are  more  favorable.  This  is  known  as  the  argument 
a  fortiori. 

II.    FIGURES  OF   SPEECH. 

A  figure  of  speech,  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term,  may 
be  defined  as  a  form  of  expression  which  departs  widely  and  strik- 
ingly in  certain  specified  ways  ^  from  what  is  literal,  straightfor- 
ward, and  matter-of-fact.  The  names  of  the  most  common  figures 
are  as  follows  :  — 

1  The  ways  must  be  specified,  otherwise  there  will  be  no  distin«tion  between 
figurative  language  and  language  that  is  simply  picturesque  or  imaginative.  When 
Shakespeare  says,  for  example  :  — 

"  I  saw  a  smith  stand  with  his  hammer,  thus, 
The  whilst  his  iron  did  on  the  anvil  cool. 
With  open  mouth  swallowing  a  tailor's  news," 

the  entire  passage  departs  widely  and  strikingly  from  what  is  plain,  literal,  and  matter- 
of-fact,  yet  only  the  last  line,  because  it  contains  the  word  "swallowing,"  would  ordi- 
narily be  called  figurative. 


Appendix  F,     Figures  of  Speech.  383 

1.  Metaphor.  6.  Apostrophe.  11.  Irony. 

2.  Simile.  7.  Allegory.  12.  Epigram. 

3.  Synecdoche.  8.  Antithesis.  13.  Hyperbole. 

4.  Metonymy.  9.  Climax.  14.  Interrogation. 

5.  Personification.  10.  Anti-climax. 

These  figures  seem  to  fall  naturally  into  the  following  groups  :  — 

1.  Figures  of  Imagery. — In  this  class  may  be  placed  figurative 
expressions  which  differ  from  the  literal  in  that  they  arouse  in  the 
mind  of  the  reader  vivid  images  of  things.  Metaphor,  simile, 
synecdoche,  metonymy,  personification,  apostrophe,  and  allegory 
may  be  assigned  to  this  division. 

2.  Figures  of  Arrangement.  —  These  are  figures  in  which  there  is 
some  peculiar  and  striking  arrangement  of  words,  phrases,  clauses, 
or  sentences  corresponding  to  some  peculiar  succession  of  ideas  in 
the  mind.  The  figures  —  if  they  may  be  called  figures  —  which 
fall  under  this  head,  are  antithesis  and  climax. 

3.  Figures  of  Contradiction.  —  This  term,  in  default  of  a  better, 
may  be  applied  to  forms  of  expression  in  which  there  is  an  apparent 
contradiction  between  the  thought  to  be  expressed  and  the  form  in 
which  it  finds  expression.  Here  belong  anti-climax  (m  the  good 
sense),  irony,  epigram,  hyperbole,  and  interrogation.  Hyperbole, 
however,  may  be  classed  also  as  a  figure  of  imagery. 

These  three  groups  will  be  taken  up  in  order,  and  the  separate 
figures  defined  and  illustrated. 

Figures  of  Imagery. 

Metaphor.  —  A  metaphor  is  an  expression  in  which  one  object  is 
spoken  of  under  the  image  of  another. 

Thus  a  gust  of  wind  which  heralds  a  storm  may  be  spoken  of 
under  the  image  of  a  frightened  man,  as  in  the  following  from 
Lowell's  Summer  Storm :  — 

"  Now  leaps  the  wind  on  the  sleepy  marsh, 
And  tramples  the  grass  with  terrified  feet." 

Or  the  operations  of  the  memory  may  be  spoken  of  under  the 
image  of  the  resurrection  :  — 


"Vw^ 


Vi-"    0- 


384  Composition-Rhetoric, 

"  His  (Milton's)  poetry  acts  like  an  incantation.  Its  merit  lies  less 
in  its  obvious  meaning  than  in  its  occult  power,  and  there  would  seem 
at  first  sight  to  be  no  more  in  his  words  than  in  other  words.  But  they 
are  words  of  enchantment.  No  sooner  are  they  pronounced  than  the 
past  is  present  and  the  distant  near.  New  forms  of  beauty  start  at 
once  into  existence,  and  all  the  burial-places  of  the  memory  give  up 
their  dead."  — Macaulay  :  Essay  on  Milton. 

For  further  remarks  on  metaphor,  see  pp.  222-225. 

Simile. — In  the  simile  an  object  is  represented  to  the  imagina- 
tion as  being  like  some  other  object,  or  as  acting  like  some  other 
object. 

In  the  following  passage  from  Wordsworth,  the  evening  is  rep- 
resented as  being  like  a  nun  at  her  devotions :  — 

"  The  holy  time  is  quiet  as  a  nun 
Breathless  with  adoration." 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  compared  his  discoveries  in  science  to  the 
actions  of  a  child  picking  up  pebbles  on  the  beach :  — 

"  I  do  not  know  what  I  may  appear  to  the  world;  but  to  myself  I 
seem  to  have  been  only  like  a  boy  playing  on  the  sea-shore,  and  divert- 
ing myself  in  now  and  then  finding  a  smoother  pebble  or  a  prettier 
shell  than  ordinary,  while  the  great  ocean  of  truth  lay  all  undiscovered 
before  me." 

Other  examples  are :  — 

"A  fellow  that  makes  no  figure  in  company,  and  has  a  mind  as 
narrow  as  the  neck  of  a  vinegar-cruet." — Johnson:  Tour  to  the 
Hebrides.     Sept.  30,  1773. 

"As  cold  waters  to  a  thirsty  soul,  so  is  good  news  from  a  far 
country." — P/'ouer&s  xxv.  25. 

For  further  remarks  on  the  simile,  see  pp.  222-225. 

Synecdoche  and  Metonymy.  —  These  are  varieties  of  metaphor  in 
which  the  image  chosen  to  represent  the  object  is  something  closely 
connected  with  it.  In  synecdoche  the  image  may  be  related  to  the 
object  as  a  part  to  a  whole,  or  as  a  whole  to  a  part ;  as  the  genus 
to  the  species,  or  as  the  species  to  the  genus.     The  material  may 


Appendix  F,     Figures  of  Speech.  385 

be  used  for  the  thing  made,  a  quality  for  the  object  possessing  the 
quality,  and  so  on. 

In  the  following  passage  from  Shakespeare's  Antony  and  Cleo- 
patra^ the  word  'sail'  —  a  part  of  a  ship  —  is  used  for  the  ship 
itseK :  — 

"  I  have  sixty  sails,  Csesar  none  better." 

In  this  from  Henry  the  Fifths  — 

"  I  have  procured  thee,  Jack,  a  charge  of  foot," 

the  word  'foot'  is  used  for  'foot-soldiers.'     In  the  following  the 
word  '  blue '  —  a  quality  of  the  sky  —  is  used  for  the  sky  itself :  — 

"I  came  and  sat 
Below  the  chestnuts  when  their  buds 
Were  glistening  in  the  breezy  blue." 

—  Tennyson:  Miller'' s  Daughter. 

The  use  of  an  individual  name  to  designate  a  class  is  illustrated 
in  the  following  :  — 

"Most  facts  are  very  soon  forgotten,  but  not  the  noblest  Shake- 
speare or  Homer  of  them  can  be  remembered  forever." — C^klyle. 

This  last  variety  of  synecdoche  is  sometimes  termed  antonomasia.  \j*^»^\>\ 

In  metonymy  the  image  used  to  represent  the  object  is  an  accom- 
paniment of  it,  as  for  example,  what  contains  it,  what  causes  it, 
what  stands  for  it,  etc. 

In  the  following  example,  'breath,'  the  accompaniment  and 
cause  of  words,  is  used  in  the  sense  of  words :  — 

"  Princes  and  lords  may  flourish  or  may  fade,  — 
A  breath  can  make  them  as  a  breath  has  made." 

—  Goldsmith  :  Deserted  Village. 

In  the  following  the  sceptre,  the  accompaniment  of  kings  and 
sign  of  their  power,  is  used  in  the  sense  of  kings,  'learning'  in 
the  sense  of  learned  men,  'physic '  in  the  sense  of  physicians :  — 

"The  sceptre,  learning,  physic  must 
All  follow  this,  and  come  to  dust." 

—  Shakespeare  :   Cymheline. 

The  distinction  between  synecdoche  and  metonymy  is  disregarded  by 
many  rhetoricians,  as  being  trivial  and  conventional. 
2c 


386  Composition- Rhetoric. 

Personijication.  —  This  figure  is  a  form  of  metaphor  in  which 
objects  without  sense  or  life  are  spoken  of  as  if  they  were  human 
beings,  or  are  made  to  speak  like  human  beings. 

Thus  labor  is  spoken  of  as  if  it  could  feel  independence  and  pride : 

"Labor  in  this  country  is  independent  and  proud.  It  has  not  to 
ask  the  patronage  of  capital,  but  capital  solicits  the  aid  of  labor." 

—  Webster. 
The  sea  is  spoken  of  as  if  it  had  a  voice :  — 

"Deep  calleth  unto  deep." 

—  Psalm  xlii. 

All  metaphor  in  which  the  image  is  that  of  a  human  being,  may  be  re- 
garded as  personification.    See  the  two  examples  under  metaphor  above. 

Apostrophe.  —  A  speaker  who  turns  away  from  his  proper  audi- 
ence to  address  in  imagination  some  one  who  is  absent,  or  some 
personified  object,  is  said  to  make  an  apostrophe. 

The  following  is  an  example.  Lamb  turns  away  from  the  reader 
of  his  essay  to  address,  in  imagination,  the  spirit  of  Henry  Man  :  — 

"  Whom  next  shall  we  summon  from  the  dusty  dead,  in  whom  com- 
mon qualities  become  uncommon  ?  Can  I  forget  thee,  Henry  Man, 
the  wit,  the  polished  man  of  letters,  the  author  of  The  South  Sea 
House  ?  "  — Lamb  :  The  South  Sea  House. 

Apostrophe  is  frequently  combined  with  personification,  as  in 
the  following:  — 

"  0  sleep,  O  gentle  sleep, 
Nature's  soft  nurse  !  how  have  I  frighted  thee  ?  " 

—  Shakespeare  :  Henry  IV. 

The  term  apostrophe  is  sometimes  applied  to  a  eulogy  addressed 
to  some  one  who  is  present,  as,  for  example,  Webster's  address  to 
Lafayette  and  to  the  survivors  of  the  Revolution,  in  the  First 
Bunker  Hill  Oration. 

Allegory.  —  This  is  properly  a  form  of  literature.  Regarded  as 
a  figure  of  speech  it  may  be  defined  as  a  metaphor  worked  out  in 
detail  in  the  form  of  a  narrative,  the  aim  being  to  impress  some 
truth  or  moral. 

The  most  notable  example  of  allegory  is  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's 
Progress. 


Appendix  F,     Figures  of  Speech.  387 

Two  common  literary  forms  may  be  classed  under  the  head  of 
allegory;  namely,  ih^fahle  and  the  parable.  A  fable  is,  in  popular 
speech,  a  short  pointed  allegory  in  which  animals  are  introduced 
as  speaking  and  acting  like  human  beings.  A  parable  is  a  short 
allegory,  but  the  term  is  now  used  solely  of  the  biblical  stories,  or 
of  allegories  framed  after  them.  * 

Figures  of  Arrangement. 

Antithesis.  —  This  term  is  applied  to  a  sentence  or  part  of  a  sen- 
tence in  which  corresponding  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  are  set 
over  against  one  another  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  contrasting 
ideas  conspicuous.  The  term  is  also  used  of  contrasting  sentences, 
or  even  of  contrasting  paragraphs. 

"The  hearing  ear  is  always  found  close  to  the  speaking  tongue." 

—  Emerson:  English  Traits. 

"Demosthenes  told  Phocian,  'The  Athenians  will  kill  you  some 
day  when  they  are  in  a  rage.'  'And  you,'  said  he,  Sif  they  are 
once  in  their  senses.'  "  — Plutarch. 

"  Our  very  hopes  belied  our  fears, 
Our  fears  our  hopes  belied  ; 
We  thought  her  dying  whexi  she  slept, 
And  sleeping  when  she  died." 

—  Hood  :    The  Death- Bed. 

For  further  remarks  on  antithesis,  see  pp.  231,  232,  above. 

Climax.  —  A  speaker  is  said  to  employ  climax  when  a  series  of 
words,  phrases,  or  clauses  is  so  arranged  that  each  in  turn  sur- 
passes the  preceding  one  in  intensity  of  expression,  or  importance 
of  meaning.  The  term  may  also  be  used  of  a  series  of  sentences 
or  of  a  series  of  paragraphs  similarly  arranged. 

"  Some  are  born  great,  some  achieve  greatness,  and  some  have 
greatness  thrust  upon  'em."  —  Shakespeare:   Twelfth  Night. 
"An  unimportant,  wandering,  sorrow-stricken  man." 
"  What  a  chimera,  then,  is  man  !     What  a  novelty,  what  a  monster, 
what  a  chaos,  what  a  subject  of  contradiction,  what  a  prodigy ! " 

—  Pascal. 

For  further  remarks  on  climax,  see  pp.  234,  236,  above. 


388  Composition- Rhetoric, 

When  a  weaker  idea  follows  a  stronger,  the  result  is  bathos  or 
anti-climax  (in  the  bad  sense). 

"  Mr.  Judson  was  an  able  lawyer,  a  shrewd  diplomat,  and  a  first- 
rate  after-dinner  speaker." 

For  another  use  of  the  term  anti-climax,  see  below. 


Figures  of  Contradiction. 

Anti-Climax.  —  This  is  a  form  of  climax  in  which  the  last  term 
of  the  series,  although  surpassing  the  preceding  terms  in  intensrfcy, 
is  "yet  absurdly  incongruous  with  them,  the  effect  aimed  at  being 
a  shock  of  humorous  surprise. 

"  The  Chief- Justice jarafi  rich,,  quiets  and  infamous."  — Macaulay  : 
Warren  Hastings. 

Irony.  —  An  ironical  expression  is  one  in  which  the  words  of  the 
speaker  seem  to  mean  one  thing,  but  in  reality  mean  just  the  con- 
trary, the  real  meaning  being  conveyed  to  us  by  the  tone  of  the 
voice  or  the  rhythm  and  suggestiveness  of  the  words.  Thus  Addi- 
son, in  the  following  passage,  under  guise  of  praising  bribery  as 
an  efficient  means  of  persuasion,  in  reality  holds  it  up  to  con- 
demnation :  — 

"  There  is  another  way  of  reasoning  which  seldom  fails,  though  it 
be  of  a  quite  different  nature  from  that  I  have  last  mentioned.  I 
mean  convincing  a  man  by  ready  money,  or,  as  it  is  ordinarily  called, 
bribing  a  man  to  an  opinion.  This  method  has  often  proved  success- 
ful when  all  the  others  have  been  made  use  of  to  no  purpose.  A  man 
who  is  furnished  with  arguments  from  the  mint  will  convince  the 
antagonist  much  sooner  than  one  who  draws  them  from  reason  and 
philosophy.  Gold  is  a  wonderful  clearer  of  the  understanding ;  it  dis- 
sipates every  doubt  and  scruple  in  an  instant ;  accommodates  itself  to 
the  meanest  capacities ;  silences  the  loud  and  clamorous,  and  brings 
over  the  most  obstinate  and  inflexible."  — Addison  :  Spectator,  No.  239. 

Epigram.  —  Acccfrding  to  Professor  Bain,  an  epigram  is  "  an 
apparent  contradiction  in  language,  which,  by  causing  a  temporary 
shock,  rouses  our  attention  to  some  important  meaning  under- 
neath.'*    This  definition  may  be  supplemented  by  the  statement 


Appendix  F,     Figures  of  Speech,  389 

that  the  epigram  usually  takes  the  form  of  a  brief,  pointed,  anti- 
thetical sentence. 

*'Let  us  be  of  good  cheer,  however,  remembering  that  the  misfor- 
tunes hardest  to  bear  are  those  which  never  come." — Lowell: 
Democracy. 

"  There  is  nothing  new,  except  what  is  forgotten." 

Hyperbole.  —  This  is  a  kind  of  metaphor  in  which  the  object 
spoken  of  is  greatly  exaggerated  in  size  or  importance  for  purposes 
of  emphasis  or  humor. 

"Falstaff  sweats  to  death. 
And  lards  the  lean  earth  as  he  walks  along." 

—  Shakespeare  :  Henry  IV. 

"  And  panting  Time  toiled  after  him  in  vain." 
—  Johnson  :  Prologue  on  the  opening  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre. 

Interrogation.  —  Attention  is  sometimes  called  to  an  important 
assertion  or  denial  by  throwing  it  into  the  form  of  a  question  or 
challenge  to  which  no  answer  is  expected.  This  figure  is  known 
as  interrogation,  or  the  rhetorical  question.  It  resembles  irony  in 
that  the  form  of  the  question  is  the  opposite  of  the  meaning  it  is 
intended  to  convey. 

"  Much  depends  on  when  and  where  you  read  a  book.  In  the  five 
or  six  impatient  minutes,  before  the  dinner  is  quite  ready,  who  would 
think  of  taking  up  the  Faerie  Queen  for  a  stop-gap,  or  a  volume  of 
Bishop  Andrewes'  sermons?" — Lamb:  Thoughts  on  Books  and 
Beading. 

"  As  I  crossed  the  bridge  over  the  Avon  on  my  return,  I  paused  to 
contemplate  the  distant  church  in  which  the  poet  lies  buried,  and 
could  not  but  exult  in  the  malediction  which  has  kept  his  ashes  un- 
disturbed in  its  quiet  and  hallowed  vaults.  What  honor  could  his 
name  have  derived  from  being  mingled  in  dusty  companionship  with 
the  epitaphs  and  escutcheons  and  venal  eulogiums  of  a  titled  multi- 
tude ?  "  — Ikving  :  Sketch  Book^  Stratford-on-Avon, 


390  Composition-Iihetoric. 


III.    POETRY. 

Ruskin  says  that  poetry  is  "the  suggestion  by  the  imagination, 
in  musical  words,  of  noble  grounds  for  noble  emotions,  —  love, 
veneration,  admiration,  and  joy,  with  their  opposites."  The  poet 
working  upon  the  imagination  creates  or  awakens  in  us  new  and 
beautiful  conceptions  of  the  world. 

The  object  of  poetry  is  the  communication  of  exalted  pleasure ; 
and  thus  the  term  poetry  implies  an  antithesis  to  the  term  science, 
since  the  object  of  science  is  not  pleasure,  but  truth,  "  hard  facts/' 
Poetry  is  usually  expressed  in  verse,  and  science  in  prose ;  but  not 
everything  that  is  written  in  verse  is  poetry,  and  poetic  thought  is 
often  found  in  prose  form. 

In  style,  poetry  is  rhythmical  and  regular;  that  is,  its  preferred 
form  is  verse  arranged  in  lines  of  fixed  lengths,  composed  of  regu- 
larly recurring  accented  and  unaccented  syllables.  In  diction, 
poetry  may  employ  abbreviated  expressions,  picturesque  expres- 
sions, epithets,  and  archaic  w^ords,  in  cases  in  which  these  would 
be  out  of  place  in  prose.  Poetry  frequently  takes  other  liberties 
which  would  not  be  permitted  to  prose,  —  in  an  unusual  order  of 
words  and  sentence-elements. 

The  materials  of  poetry  are  drawn  (1)  from  external  nature,  the 
sounds,  colors,  movements,  and  impressiveness  of  which  we  are 
helped  to  appreciate  by  means  of  poetry  ;  (2)  from  human  life,  — 
man*s  deeds,  emotions,  intellectual  powers,  courage,  and  greatness. 

Poetry  deals  with  concrete  rather  than  abstract  notions;  that 
is,  if ^  a  poet  wishes  to  hold  up  for  our  admiration  generosity,  for 
instance,  he  does  this  by  detailing  a  particular  and  beautiful  in- 
stance of  generosity,  and  not  by  talking  about  the  abstract  virtue 
generosity  itself.  He  embodies  general  ideas  in  particular  images, 
and  for  this  reason  he  expresses  his  thought  largely  in  figures, 
many  of  which  owe  their  effectiveness  to  their  concreteness. 

Kinds  of  Poetry. 

Poetry  is  of  three  kinds :  epic,  dramatic,  and  lyric  poetry.  A 
fourth   division   is   often   made  for   convenience,  called   didactic 


Appendix  F,     Poetry.  891 

poetry.  Epic  and  dramatic  poetry  are  alike  in  one  respect :  both 
embody  a  story  ;  but  they  differ  in  many  respects,  one  of  which  is 
this, — in  the  epic  the  poet  narrates  the  story  himself,  whereas  in 
the  drama  the  poet  himself  does  not  appear ;  he  makes  the  actors 
show  what  the  story  is  by  what  they  do  and  say. 

Epic  Poetry. 

Epic  poetry  is  that  kind  in  which  the  poet  himself  narrates  a 
story  as  if  he  were  present.  In  this  sense,  epic  poetry  and  narra- 
tive poetry  mean  the  same  thing.  Epic  poetry  is  subdivided  as 
follows :  — 

'  1.  The  Great  Epic.  —  In  this  the  poet  narrates,  in  stately,  uni- 
form verse,  a  series  of  great  and  heroic  events,  in  which  gods, 
demi-gods,  and  heroes  play  the  most  conspicuous  parts.  The 
Great  Epic  has  (1)  a  noble  theme  based  on  mythology,  legend,  or 
religion,  involving,  therefore,  a  supernatural  element ;  (2)  a  com- 
plete and  unified  story-plot,  the  action  of  w^hich  is  concentrated  in 
a  short  time,  and  the  chief  events  partly  or  wholly  under  super- 
human control ;  (3)  a  hero,  of  more  than  human  proportions,  and 
other  characters  human  and  divine ;  (4)  it  is  simple  in  structure, 
smooth,  uniform,  and  metrical,  dignified  and  grave  in  tone;  it 
employs  dialogue,  and  may  employ  episode,  which  is  a  story  not 
needed  for  the  main  plot,  although  connected  with  some  part  of 
the  action ;  (5)  it  enforces  no  moral ;  the  moral  must  be  discov- 
ered from  the  story,  and  the  interest  centres  in  the  action. 

The  Odyssey  and  the  Iliad  are  great  epics  which  grew  up  among 
the  early  Greeks ;  Beowulf  is  a  great  epic  which  grew  up  among 
our  remote  ancestors.  Later  poets  who  7nade  great  epic  poems  are 
Vergil,  who  made  the  ^neid^  and  the  English  poet  Milton,  who 
made  Paradise  Lost. 

The  Mock  Epic  treats  of  a  trivial  subject  in  the  heroic  style  of 
the  great  epic.  An  example  is  Pope's  Rape  of  the  Lock.  Butler's 
Hudihras  is  satire  in  mock-epic  style. 

2.  In  tl^eMetrical  Romance,  or  narrative  of  adventure  (1)  the 
theme  is  less  noble  and  grandTlian  in  the  great  epic,  and  the  super- 
natural element,  if  occasionally  admitted,  is  less  prominent;  (2)  the 
action  is  less  concentrated,  and  the  chief  events  are  partly  or  wholly 


^ 


392  Composition-Rhetoric, 

under  human  control;  (8)  the  element  of  love,  which  is  almost 
absent  in  the  great  epic,  is  conspicuous;  (4)  the  metre  is  less 
stately,  and  the  style  more  easy  and  familiar.  The  llomance  is 
a  product  of  the  age  of  chivalry.  Spenser's  Faery  Queen  is  an 
example.  Modern  Romances  are  Scott's  Marmion  and  The  Lady  of 
the  Lake. 

3.  The  Tale  is  a  still  humbler  form  of  narrative  poetry ;  it  tells 
a  complete  story,  with  love  or  humor  predominant.  Chaucer's  Can- 
terbury Tales  and  Longfellow's  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn  furnish  some 
examples.  Poe's  Raven,  Byron's  Corsair,  Burns's  Tarn  O'Shanter, 
and  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden  and  Dora  are  tales. 
•  4.  The  Ballad  is  generally  shorter  and  is  always  less  discursive 
than  the  tale  ;  it  tells  its  story  rapidly  and  simply.  Ballads  were 
originally  folk-songs ;  like  the  oldest  epics,  they  grew  up  among  the 
people,  and  their  authors  are  commonly  unknown.  Chevy  Chase, 
Sir  Patrick  Spens,  the  Robin  Hood  ballads,  and  the  Battle  of  Maldon 
are  examples.  Later,  poets  made  ballads  :  Campbell's  Battle  of  the 
Baltic  is  a  martial  ballad  ;  Whittier's  Maud  Midler,  a  love  ballad ; 
Coleridge's  The  Ancient  Mariner,  a  superstitious  ballad  ;  Macaulay's 
Lays  of  Ancient  Rome  are  historical  ballads. 

5.  The  Pastoral  is  a  slightly  narrative  poem  depicting  rural  life, 
with  a  large  element  of  description,  but  with  little  action.  Keats 's 
Endymion,  Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village,  and  Thomson's  Seasons 
are  examples. 

6.  T\\^J.diill  This  word  means  "  a  little  picture."  It  has  been 
used  in  two  senses.:  (1)  a  short  narrative  poem  giving  little  pict- 
ures of  simple  country  life,  quiet,  homely  scenes,  and  appealing  to 
gentle  emotions.  In  this  sense  it  is  but  another  name  for  the  short 
Pastoral.  Examples  are,  Longfellow's  Evangeline,  Whittier's  Snow- 
Bound,  and  Burns's  Cotter's  Saturday  Night.  (2)  A  short  narrative 
poem  giving  pictures  of  a  more  highly  spectacular  life,  involving 
scenes  of  action,  and  appealing  to  strong  emotions.  Such  are  Ten- 
nyson's Idylls  of  the  King  and  some  of  Browning's  poems. 

Dramatic  Poetry. 

The  drama,  like  the  epic,  deals  with  the  past,  but  the  drama 
represents  the  past  in  the  present.     It  exhibits  a  story  by  means 


Appendix  F,     Poetry.  393 

of  characters  speaking  and  acting  in  a  series  of  situations  so  con- 
trived as  to  develop  a  plot,  and  show  a  single  controlling  purpose. 
This  subordination  of  all  actions  to  the  controlling  purpose  of  a 
play  is  known  as  unity  of  action.  The  drama,  when  enacted  on 
the  stage,  employs  scenery  and  costume  to  produce  the  impression 
of  reality.  The  drama  is  "imitated  human  action,"  but  it  does 
not  imitate  a  series  of  human  actions  exactly  as  they  occur  in 
actual  life;  it  selects  typical  actions  and  arranges  these  with  a 
single  purpose,  as  they  might  occur.  The  drama  is  divided  into 
"acts,"  usually  five  in  number,  the  earlier  acts  exhibiting  the 
causes,  starting  conflicting  lines  of  action,  entangling  and  develop- 
ing these  to  a  climax  or  height  of  interest  which  is  usually  reached 
in  the  fourth  act,  the  last  act  exhibiting  the  consequences  of 
the  action,  denouement.  The  whole  play  thus  makes  a  complete 
story. 

1.  Tragedy  (1)  deals  with  solemn  themes  showing  a  mortal  will 
at  odds  with  fate ;  (2)  produces,  in  the  mind  of  the  spectator,  pity 
and  terror  and  awe,  driving  out  trivial  and  unworthy  thoughts ; 
(3)  leads  through  a  complicated  plot  to  a  catastrophe,  the  final 
overthrow  of  the  mortal  who  has  been  either  criminal  in  his  motive 
(Macbeth)  or  mistaken  in  his  motive  (Othello) ,  and  (4)  this  catas- 
trophe is  foreshadowed,  is  felt  to  be  coming,  and  when  it  does 
come  is  felt  to  be  inevitable,  beyond  human  power  to  prevent. 
Tragedy  prefers  verse ;  its  language  is  nobler  than  that  of  daily 
life,  so  that  we  are  not  reminded  of  common  concerns  even  by  the 
words  used,  but  live  for  the  time  in  a  higher  and  nobler  world, 
the  world  of  the  imagination.  Julius  Ccesar,  Lear,  Hamlet,  Romeo 
and  Juliet,  are  examples.  Such  a  play  as  the  Merchant  of  Venice, 
in  which  both  tragedy  and  comedy  are  present  in  a  subdued  form, 
is  classified  as  Reconciling  Drama. 

2.  Comedy  (1)  deals  with  lighter  themes,  with  the  follies,  acci- 
dents, or  humors  of  life ;  (2)  produces  no  terror  or  pity,  but  pro- 
duces amusement  or  mirth ;  (3)  ends  not  with  a  catastrophe,  but 
brings  the  story  to  a  conclusion  naturally  desired,  all  ending  as  we 
would  have  it ;  (4)  does  not  foreshadoW  the  end,  as  tragedy  does, 
but  frequently  surprises  us  happily.  Comedy  is  nearer  to  daily 
life,  does  not  employ  verse  so  often  as  tragedy  does,  inclines  to 
prose,  and  employs  less  noble  language.     In  Comedy  Proper,  such 


394  Composition- Rhetoric. 

as  Shakespeare's  As  You  Like  It  and  Twelfth  Night,  Goldsmith's 
She  Stoops  to  Conquer,  and  Sheridan's  Rivals,  the  amusement 
may  arise  both  from  the  chai-acters  and  from  the  plot  or  from 
either  alone.  Comedy  Proper  does  not  result  in  continued  peals 
of  uproarious  laughter.  In  the  Farce  we  have  a  short  comedy  that 
does  so  result.  The  Farce  is  "broad"  in  its  effects,  and  consists 
of  highly  ridiculous  situations  and  greatly  exaggerated  characters. 
Melodrama  introduces  music,  is  partly  spoken  and  partly  sung ;  in 
modern  melodrama  the  scenes  are  highly  romantic  and  sensa- 
tional. The  Mask  was  a  kind  of  pastoral  drama  of  simple  plot, 
rural,  romantic  scenes,  and  masked  characters  (shepherds  and  shep- 
herdesses mainly),  with  some  supernatural  personages.  Originally 
it  was  largely  song  and  dance  by  masked  characters.  Milton's 
Comus,  the  greatest  English  Mask,  showed  to  what  perfection  the 
Mask  might  be  developed,  and  what  a  lofty  moral  tone  might  be 
given  to  it.  The  Opera  is  properly  a  kind  of  comedy  in  which 
the  actors  sing  their  parts,  the  words  having  less  importance  than 
the  music,  and  the  whole  being  of  little  literary  value.  But  in 
Grand  Opera  we  have  the  best  music  joined  to  high  and  serious 
themes  of  legendary  or  romantic  character,  and  sometimes  the  best 
poetry. 

Lyric  Poetry. 

The  Lyric  is  a  poem  which  voices  the  personal  feeling,  senti- 
ment, or  passion  of  the  poet  himself.  The  word  '  lyric  '  shows  that 
such  poetry  was  originally  sung  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  lyre 
or  harp.  Many  lyrics  are  still  set  to  music,  though  not  primarily 
\\Titten  to  be  sung.  (1)  The  Lyric  has  to  do  with  the  inner  feel- 
ings of  the  poet,  not  (like  the  epic)  with  outward  events,  and 
hence  it  is  said  to  be  subjective.  (2)  The  best  lyrics  are  sincere 
and  imaginative.  (3)  Lyric  Poetry  expresses  itself  in  many  differ- 
ent forms  of  verse  and  metre,  and  does  not  have  a  preferred  form, 
as  the  Great  Epic  and  the  Drama  have.  Lyric  Poetry  may  be  clas- 
sified as  follows :  — 

1.  The  Song.  —  This  is  usually  short,  simple  in  measure,  and 
divided  into  stanzas  each  complete  in  itself  but  related  to  the 
sentiment  of  the  whole.  Sacred  songs  include  hymns,  psalms, 
choruses,  and  anthems.     Secular  songs  may  be  patriotic,  comic, 


Appendix  F,     Poetry,  395 

moral,  political,  or  sentimental,  may  treat  of  war,  love,  or  death. 
The  song  is  the  simple  natural  expression  of  the  poet's  immediate 
feeling. 

2.  The  Ode.  —  This  is  the  expression  of  intense  feeling,  feeling 
which  has  become  enthusiasm  in  the  poet.  The  Ode  has  a  more 
elaborate  structure  and  scheme  of  verse  than  the  song.  It  is  not 
intended  to  be  sung.  Keats's  Ode  to  a  Nightingale,  Dryden's  Ode  to 
St.  Cecilia,  Wordsworth's  Intimations  of  Immortality^  Sir  William 
Jones's  What  Constitutes  a  State  f  are  examples. 

3.  The  Elegy.  —  This  expresses  grief  mingled  with  reflection ; 
regret  for  the  dead  is  its  usual  theme,  or  plaintive  reflection  on 
mortality.  Gray's  Elegy,  Milton's  Lycidas,  Hood's  Bridge  of  Sighs, 
Shelley's  Adonais,  Tennyson's  In  Memoriam,  are  examples.  Whit- 
tier's  Ichdbod  laments  Webster's  fall,  his  death  to  a  high  ideal. 

4.  The  Sonnet.  —  This  is  a  short  poem  in  fixed  form,  limited  to 
fourteen  lines,  and  generally  with  a  prescribed  arrangement  of 
rhymes.  It  usually  deals  with  a  single  phase  of  feeling,  but  is 
sometimes  less  specific,  and  may  be  devoted  to  description.  Milton, 
Wordsworth,  Keats,  Shakespeare,  furnish  examples. 

5.  Dramatic  Lyric.  —  This  is  a  lyric  which  vividly  suggests 
human  action.  A  single  character  located  by  the  poet,  speaks  to 
an  imaginary  audience,  and,  by  his  suggestive  words,  pictures  a 
scene,  the  actors,  and  what  they  did.  To  the  imagination  of  the 
reader,  it  is  as  if  a  drama  were  being  enacted.  Browning's  The 
Patriot,  The  Bishop  Orders  His  Tomb,  are  examples. 

6.  Simply  Lyric.  —  A  great  many  lyrics  lack  the  specific  aims 
and  characteristics  mentioned  under  the  foregoing  heads.  They 
are  simply  lyrics :  Wordsworth's  Cuckoo,  Tennyson's  St.  Agnes' 
Eve,  Burns's  To  a  Mouse. 

Didactic  Poetry. 

Epic,  dramatic,  and  lyric  poetry  aim  to  give  refined  pleasure ; 
they  work  on  the  imagination  and  the  feelings.  In  their  lower 
forms,  however,  an  element  of  instruction,  an  aim  to  teach,  an 
address  to  the  intellect  or  reason  sometimes  enters.  To  describe 
this  element,  the  adjective  didactic  is  used.  Spenser's  Faery 
Queen  is  a  metrical  romance  with  a  didactic  element  expressed 


396  Composition- lihetoric. 

in  allegory.  Wordsworth's  lilxcursion  is  epic  in  plan  and  style, 
but  is  didactic  in  mubh  of  its  philosophical  reflection.  Banyan's 
Pilgrim's  Progress  is  didactic  allegory.  When  the  didactic  ele- 
ment becomes  too  prcuninent,  and  tlie  principal  aim  is  evidently 
to  teach,  the  high  title  "poetry"  is  withheld.  Pope's  Moral 
Essays  and  the  Essay  on  Man  appeal  to  the  reason  and  intellect, 
and  not  to  the  imagination  at  all. 

Satire  assumes  the  form  of  poetry  (verse)  merely  to  increase  its 
sharpness.  Satire  aims  to  belittle  men  and  events,  to  expose  vice, 
weakness,  folly,  and  to  effect  political  or  social  reforms.  Exam- 
ples :  Johnson's  London,  Butler's  Hudibras,  Lowell's  Biglow  Papers, 
Dryden's  MacFlecknoe  and  Absalom  and  Achitophel,  Byron's  Eng- 
lish Bards  and  Scottish  Reviewers. 


Versification. 

Versification  is  the  art  of  making  verses ;  it  deals  with  the  me- 
chanical side  of  poetry.  In  reading  poetry  aloud  we  notice  a  regular 
recurrence  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables.  This  is  called 
rhythm.  Prose  has  rhythm,  but  prose  rhythm  is  not  regular  and 
uniform.  Metre  is  the  measure  of  rhythm.  The  smallest  recurring 
combination  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables  is  called  a  foot. 
The  smallest  recurring  combination  of  feet  is  called  a  verse.  A 
verse  is  a  line  of  poetry.  The  number  of  feet  in  English  verse 
varies  from  one  to  eight.  The  number  of  feet  in  a  line  of  verse 
determines  its  metre;  the  kind  of  foot  employed  determines  the 
rhythm. 

1.  The  principal  feet  occurring  in  English  verse  are  dissyllabic 
and  trisyllabic.  Dissyllabic  feet  are  (1)  the  Iambus,  consisting  of 
an  unaccented  followed  by  an  accented  syllable,  as  suppose ;  it  is 
the  favorite  foot  in  English  poetry.  (2)  The  Trochee,  consisting 
of  an  accented  followed  by  an  unaccented  syllable ;   as  morning. 

,  Trisyllabic  feet  are  (1)  the  Dactyl,  consisting  of  an  accented  syl- 
lable, followed  by  two  unacccented;  as  edify;  (2)  The  Anapest, 
consisting  of  two  unaccented  syllables  followed  by  one  accented ; 
as  persevere.  A  foot  may  take  in  parts  of  two  words.  The  accent 
of  a  foot  coincides  with  the  English  word-accent. 

2.  Metre  is  doubly  named :  first  from  the  kind  of  foot ;  secondly, 


Appendix  F,     Poetry.  397 

from  the  number  of  feet  in  the  line.  Thus  a  line  of  one  iambic 
foot  is  called  iambic  monometer ;  of  two  iambic  feet,  iambic  dimeter ; 
of  three  iambic  feet,  iambic  trimeter ;  of  four  iambic  feet,  iambic 
tetrameter.  In  the  following  examples  we  use  ^-^  to  indicate  an 
unaccented  syllable,  and  '  to  indicate  an  accented  syllable.  The 
vertical  lines  mark  off  the  feet. 

I  know  I  a  maid  |  en  fair  |  to  see,  (iambic  tetrameter) 

Take  care  !  (iambic  monometer) 

She  can  |  both  false  |  and  friend  |ly  be,  (iambic  tetrameter) 

Beware  !  |  Beware  !  (iambic  dimeter) 

His  hair  |  is  crisp  |  and  black  |  and  long,     (iambic  tetrameter) 
His  face  |  is  like  |  the  tan  (iambic  trimeter) 

A  line  of  five  iambic  feet  is  called  iambic  pentameter.  It  is  also 
known  as  heroic  measure. 

We  live  |  in  deeds,  |  not  years  :  |  in  thoughts,  |  not  breaths. 

A  line  of  six  iambic  feet  is  called  iambic  hexameter.  It  is  also 
known  as  Alexandrine  measure. 

The  things  |  which  I  |  have  seen  |  I  now  |  can  see  |  no  more. 
A  line  of  seven  iambic  feet  is  called  iambic  heptameter* 
Now  glo  I  ry  to  |  the  Lord  |  of  Hosts  |  from  whom  |  all  glo  |  ries  are. 
A  line  of  eight  feet  is  called  iambic  octameter. 
Oall  I  yepeo|ple,  clap  |  your  hands  |  and  with  |  trium  |  phant  voi  |  ces 
sing. 

3.  The  words  monometer,  dimeter ,  trimeter,  tetrameter,  etc.,  are 
also  used  with  the  adjectives  trochaic,  dactyllic,  and  anapestic,  to 
tell  how  many  trochaic,  dactyllic,  or  anapestic  feet  there  are  in  a 
line.     The  following  illustrate  some  of  these :  — 


398  Composition-Rhetoric, 

Do  not  I  shoot  me,  |  Hi  a  |  wa  tlia !         (trochaic  tetrameter) 
Like  a  [  high-born  |  maiden  (trochaic  trimeter) 


Turning 
Burning 
Changing  J 


(trochaic  monometer.) 


Once  up  I  on  a  I  midnight  |  dreary  |  as  I  |  pondered  |  weak  and  |  weary 

(trochaic  octameter) 

^^fV  !!'r'""  1  (trochaic  dimeter) 
Joys  en  |  suing     J 

There's  a  bliss  |  beyond  all  |  that  the  min|strel  has. told 

(anapestic  tetrameter) 

And  we  came  |  to  the  Boun|teous  Isle,  |  where  the  heav|ens  lean 

low  I  on  the  land  (anapestic  hexameter) 

Touch  her  not  |  scornfully  (dactyllic  dimeter) 

Think  of  her  |  mournfully  (dactyllic  dimeter) 

This  is  the  |  forest  pri|meval;     the  |  murmuring  |  pines  and  the  | 
hemlocks  (dactyllic  hexameter,  last  foot  incomplete) 

Separating  lines  into  the  feet  of  which  they  are  composed  (as 
we  have  been  doing)  is  called  Scansion.  Each  line  that  we  have 
scanned  has  consisted  of  only  one  kind  of  foot.  Such  lines  are 
called  Pure.  Some  lines  show  two  kinds  of  feet.  Such  lines  are 
said  to  be  Mixed. 

One  of  I  those  lit  |  tie  pla  |  ces  that  |  have  run 

(first  foot,  trochee  ;  the  rest,  iambic) 

Meanwhile    a  |  mid    the  |  gloom   by    the  |  church    E  |  vangeline  | 
lingered. 


Appendix  F.     Poetry.  399 

In  this  last,  the  second,  fourth,  and  sixth  feet  are  trochees,  and 
the  rest  are  dactyls.  The  line  is  mixed  trochaic  and  dactylic 
hexameter. 

Whene'er  |  is  spo  |  ke7i  a  no  \  ble  thought 

(third  foot,  anapest ;  the  rest,  iambic) 

Frequently  a  line  is  incomplete,  an  unaccented  syllable  (most 
often  at  the  end)  being  missing,  its  place  being  supplied  by  a  pause. 

In  the  I  market  |  place  of  |  Bruges  |  stands  the  |  belfry  |  old  and  | 

brown    . 
This  line  is  trochaic  octameter,  the  last  foot  incomplete. 

Gold !  ^  I  Gotd  !  ^  \  Gold  !  ^  \  Gold  !  ^     (each  foot  incomplete) 
Bright  and  |  yellow,  |  hard  and  |  cold       (last  foot  incomplete) 

Listen  my  |  children  and  |  you  shall  |  hear 

(mixed ;  and  last  foot  incomplete) 

Pauses  occur  naturally  in  verse  as  in  prose ;  the  chief  pause  (if 
there  is  one)  occurring  in  the  body  of  a  line  is  called  the  caesura. 
It  may  divide  a  foot,  and  does  not  usually  come  at  the  same  place 
in  successive  lines.  In  the  following  examples  we  use  double 
vertical  lines  to  mark  the  caesura :  — 

Build  me  |  straight,  |1  0  |  worthy  |  Master  !  (dividing  a  foot) 

O  lyr  I  ic  Love  !  ||  half-an  |  gel  and  |  half -bird        (not  dividing  a  foot) 

The  number  of  syllables  and  the  length  of  time  required  to  pro- 
nounce the  separate  syllables  affect  the  rhythm  of  a  line,  in  a 
marked  degree.  Long  syllables  predominating  produce  the  effect 
of  slowness  ;  short  syllables,  the  effect  of  hurry  and  liveliness. 

Alone,  alone,  all,  all  alone, 
Alone  on  a  wide,  wide  sea ! 

I  sprang  to  the  stirrup,  and  Joris,  and  he  ; 

I  galloped,  Dirck  galloped,  we  galloped  all  three. 


400  Compositwn-Rhetoric, 

Rhyme  is  correspondenoe  of  sound.  It  is  most  readily  seen  at 
the  ends  of  lines,  but  occurs  also  within  the  lines.  It  is  assonantal 
when  the  vowels  alone  correspond,  in  the  rhyming  syllables.  It  is 
consonantal  when  the  final  consonants  also  correspond.  In  the  fol- 
lowing, thou  and  now  are  assonantal ;  last  and  past  are  consonantal 
also. 

Yet  did  I  love  tkee  to  the  last 

As  fervently  as  thoUj 
Who  didst  not  change  through  all  the  past^ 
And  canst  not  alter  now. 

Rhyme  is  seen  within  the  first  and  third  lines  of  the  following :  — 

I  bring  fresh  shoivers  for  the  fhirsting  flowers 

From  the  seas  and  the  streams  ; 
I  bear  light  shade  for  the  leaves  when  laid 

In  their  noonday  dreams. 

Alliteration,  a  kind  of  rhyme,  is  the  recurrence,  at  short  inter- 
vals, of  the  same  initial  consonant. 

And  thistles,  and  nettles,  and  darnels  rank, 

And  the  dock,  and  the  /lenbane  ;  and  hemlock  dank. 

Blank  verse  is  verse  without  rhyme.  In  its  perfect  form  it  is  a 
continuous  metre  of  iambic  pentameter  lines.  It  is  the  most  ele- 
vated and  dignified  measure,  and  is  used  for  the  high  themes  of 
epic  and  drama.  Read  Portia's  "  The  quality  of  mercy  is  not 
strained,"  etc. 

A  stanza  is  a  part  of  a  poem  consisting  of  a  group  of  lines 
arranged  according  to  a  definite  plan.  Stanzas  of  the  same  poem 
are  usually  constructed  alike. 

Two  consecutive  rhyming  lines  constitute  a  couplet ;  a  couplet  is 
not  usually  referred  to  as  a  stanza.  Three  consecutive  lines  (usu- 
ally, but  not  always,  rhyming  together)  constitute  a  Triplet  or 
Tercet. 

A  stanza  of  four  lines  rhyming  alternately  or  otherwise  is  called 
a  Quatrain.  A  quatrain  of  four  iambic  pentameters  with  alternate 
rhyme,  is  called  Elegiac  Stanza.  See  Gray's  Elegy.  A  quatrain 
of  four  iambic  tetrameters  is  called  Long  Metre. 


Appendix  F.     Poetry,  401 

Awake,  my  soul,  and  with  the  sun 
Thy  daily  stage  of  duty  run  ; 
Shake  off  dull  sloth,  and  early  rise 
To  pay  the  morning  sacrifice. 

A  quatrain  of  four  iambic  trimeters  with  an  additional  foot  in 
the  third  line  is  called  Short  Metre. 

The  world  can  never  give 

The  bliss  for  which  we  sigh  : 
'Tis  not  the  whole  of  life  to  live, 

Nor  all  of  death  to  die. 

A  quatrain  of  four  iambic  tetrameters  alternating  with  three 
is  called  Common  Metre,  or  Ballad  Metre  (because  a  favorite  in 
ballads). 

When  all  Thy  mercies,  O  my  God, 

My  rising  soul  surveys, 
Transported  with  the  view,  I'm  lost 
In  wonder,  love,  and  praise. 

Long,  short,  and  common  metre  are  the  favorite  hymn-stanzas. 
Five-line  stanzas  (Shelley's  To  a  Skylark)  and  six-line  stanzas 
(Longfellow's  The  Village  Blacksmith)  are  also  used.  The  seven- . 
line  stanza  of  iambic  pentameter  is  called  Chaucerian  stanza  (be- 
cause used  by  Chaucer),  or  Rhyme  Royal  (because  adopted  by  King 
James  I.  of  Scotland).  In  this  the  first  four  lines  are  an  alter- 
nately-rhyming quatrain ;  the  fifth  line  rhymes  with  the  fourth, 
and  the  last  two  lines  form  a  couplet.  Ottava  Rima  is  an  eight- 
line  stanza  of  iambic  pentameter,  the  first  six  lines  rhyming  alter- 
nately, the  last  two  lines  having  no  rhyme  (Byron's  Don  Juan). 
The  Spenserian  stanza,  invented  by  the  author  of  the  Faery  Queen, 
consists  of  nine  lines,  the  first  eight  being  iambic  pentameters,  and 
the  ninth  an  Alexandrine  (iambic  hexameter)  ;  the  first  and  third 
lines  rhyming  together ;  also  the  second,  fourth,  fifth,  and  seventh  ; 
also  the  sixth,  eighth,  and  ninth.  Burns  used  this  stanza  in  the 
Cotter'^s  Saturday  Night. 

A  canto  consists  of  a  number  of  stanzas  which  together  make  up 
a  natural  division  of  a  long  poem.  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake  has 
six  cantos. 


402  Composition-Rhetoric. 

The  Sonnet  is  a  lyric  of  fourteen  iambic  pentameter  lines  ar- 
ranged according  to  a  prescribed  order  of  rhyme,  and  usually 
restricted  to  the  expression  of  a  single  sentiment.  Mr.  R.  W. 
Gilder  shows  the  strict  order  of  rhymes  in  the  following ;  the  col- 
umn of  letters  to  the  right  indicating  the  scheme  of  end-rhymes  :  — 

What  is  a  sonnet  ?     'Tis  a  pearly  shell  a 

That  murmurs  of  the  far-off  murmuring  sea,  h 

A  precious  jewel  carved  most  curiously  ;  6 

It  is  a  little  picture  painted  well.  a 

What  is  a  sonnet  ?    'Tis  the  tear  that  fell  a 

From  a  great  poet's  hidden  ecstasy  ;  h 

A  two-edged  sword,  a  star,  a  song  —  ah  me  !  h 

Sometimes  a  heavy-tolling  funeral  bell.  a 

This  was  the  flame  that  shook  with  Dante's  breath,  c 

The  solemn  organ  whereon  Milton  played,  d 

And  the  clear  glass  where  Shakespeare's  shadow  falls  :  e 

A  sea  this  is  —  beware  who  ventureth  !  c 

For  like  a  fiord  the  narrow  floor  is  laid  d 

Deep  as  mid-ocean  to  sheer  mountain  walls.  e 

Sonnet  writers  do  not  hold  uniformly  to  this  scheme  of  rhyme- 
order.  Wyatt,  Surrey,  Shakespeare,  Milton,  and  other  sonneteers 
since  their  time,  show  a  variety  in  the  number  and  order  of 
rhymes. 


INDEX. 


[The  reference  is  to  pages.    Names  of  authors  whose  works  are  quoted  and  of  periodi- 
cals from  which  extracts  have  been  made,  are  in  Small  Capitals.] 


Abbott,  68. 

Abstract  expressions,  222,  223. 

Agassiz,  48. 

AiNGER,  62. 

Alcott,  9. 

Allegory,  386. 

Analogies,  Development    of    theme 

by,  92-98. 
Analysis,  Material  for,  3^9-360. 
Andersen,  5. 
Andrews,  120. 
Antecedent,  327-329,  343. 
Anti-climax,  388. 
Antithesis,  231-236,  387. 
Antonomasia,  385. 
Apostrophe,  386. 
Argumentation,  379-382. 
Arrangement,  241-243. 
Atlantic  Monthly,  153,  213. 
Audubon,  253. 

Bagehot.  89,  96,  122. 

Ballad,  The,  392. 

Bancroft,  178. 

Barrie,  9,  32. 

Black,  84. 

Blank  verse,  400. 

Brett,  60. 

Brown,  83,  201. 

Bryce,  213,  236,  334. 

Burke,  106,  135,  138,  180,  182,  183, 

232. 
Burroughs,  161,  196. 


Canto,  The,  401. 


Capitalization,  368. 

Carlyle,  38,  287. 

Cause  and  effect,  110-113. 

Century  Magazine,  74,  84. 

Change  of  subject,  Unexpected,  326. 

Chatham,  179. 

Clarendon,  323,  325. 

Clauses,  Involved,  325. 

Clearness,  Sentence-order  for,  257- 

263. 
Climax,  231-236,  387. 
Coherence,  323-331. 
Coleridge,  100. 
Comedy,  393,  394. 
Comparisons,  Development  of  theme 

by,  92-98. 
Concrete  expressions,  222,  223. 
Condensation,  306-310. 
Congressional  Record,  227. 
Conjunctions,  105,  112,  124,  292,  344, 

345. 
Construction,  Faulty,  344. 
Contrasts,  103-105. 

COPPEE,  54. 

Correction-marks,  342-348. 
Cosmopolitan  Magazine,  320. 
Crane,  142. 
Crawford,  96,  100. 
Creighton,  111. 

Cumberland  Presbyterian,  60. 
Curtis,  80. 

Description,  371-374. 

De  Quincey,  136,  300,  314. 

Diction,  Choice  of,  205-209. 


403 


404 


Composition- Rhetoric, 


Didactic  poetry,  395,  396. 
Digressions,  314-319. 
Discourse,  Types  of,  371-382. 
DOWDEN,  54. 
Dramatic  poetry,  392-394. 

Earle,  328. 

'Echo,'  330. 

Elegy,  The,  395. 

Eliot,  307. 

Emerson,  143,  144,  153,  228. 

Emphasis,  Sentence-order  for,  257- 

263. 
Epic  poetry,  391,  392. 
Epigram,  388. 
Everett,  155,  213. 
Examples,  87-91. 
Explicit  reference,  344. 
Exposition,  377-379. 
Expression,  297-301. 
Expression,  Choice  of,  205-209. 

Fable,  387. 

Farce,  394. 

Farrar,  151,  228,  294. 

Fields,  238. 

Figures,  222-225,  382-390. 

'Fine  Writing,'  346. 

Fortnightly  Review,  55. 

Foster,  113. 

Franklin,  28,  50,  75,  113. 

Freeman,  330. 

Froude,  63. 

Gaynor,  54. 

General  ideas,  219-223. 

Gibbon,  61,  152,  156. 

GiLMAN,  54. 

Grady,  36,  56. 
Gray,  210. 
Green,  299. 
Guyot,  114. 

Hale,  284. 

Hamerton,  58,  90, 105,  127,  128, 162, 

163. 
Hardy,  226. 
Harper's  AVeekly,  62. 
Hart,  330  note. 
HiGGINSON,  36,  125. 


Holland,  247. 

Holmes,  7,  72,  83,  106,  135,  225. 

Hood,  28. 

HOSMER,  57. 

Howard,  191. 
HowELLS,  95,  101, 129. 
Hudson,  56. 
Hughes,  49,  298. 
Hugo,  29. 
Huxley,  95. 
Hyperbole,  389. 

Idiomatic  expressions,  207 

Idyll,  The,  392. 

Images,  219-221. 

Imaginative  expressions,  219-225. 

Incoherence,  323-331, 

Indention,  5-29, 

Instances,  specific.  Development  of 

theme  by,  87-91. 
Interrogation,  389. 
Irony,  388. 

Irving,  11,  17, 19,  35,  82,  103, 121, 
its,  2^21. 

Jebb,  118. 
Johnson,  73, 121. 
Jowett,  308. 

Keats,  305. 
Keeping,  346. 

KiNGLAKE,  112. 

Kingsley,  141. 

Lalor  and  Mason,  57,  62. 

Lamb,  63,  68. 

Langley,  94. 

Lewis,  3  note. 

Lincoln,  140,  217. 

Literal  expressions,  222,  223. 

Lodge,  104. 

London  Daily  Telegraph,  311. 

London  Saturday  Review,  312. 

Longfellow,  8,  52,  53,  78,  154,  194, 

198. 
Lovelace,  304. 
Lowell,   38,   88,    94,  97,   139,   179, 

220. 
Lutheran  World,  53. 
Lyric  poetry,  394,  395. 


Index, 


405 


Macaulay,  37,  55,  7G,  78,  89,  93,  9G, 

135,  155,  175,  203,  224,  307,  319. 
Mackenzie,  138,  143. 
Mahaffy,  118. 
McMaster,  107,  123. 
Manuscript,  Preparation  of,  339-341. 
Mary,  Princess,  332. 
Mask,  The,  394. 
Matthews,  108. 
Melodrama,  394. 
Merivale,  62. 
Metaphor,  383,  384. 
Metaphor,  Mixed,  224,  225. 
Metaphorical  expressions,  222-225. 
Metonymy,  384,  385. 
Metre,  39G,  397. 
Mill,  120. 
Milton,  304. 
Montaigne,  298. 
Montgomery,  114. 
Motley,  28,  47. 
Moulton,  318  note. 

Napier,  236. 
Narrative,  374-377. 
not  only  —  hut  also,  259. 

Ode,  The,  395. 

Oliphant,  137. 

only,  259  and  note. 

Opera,  394. 

Order,  Logical,  241-243. 

Order,  Time  and  space,  246-250. 

Parable,  387. 

Paragraph,  a    sentence-group,   1-3; 

External  form  of,  1-29 ;  Structure 

of,  30-39;  Theme  of,  42-44;  Growth 

of,  72-133. 
Participle  for  clause,  342. 
Participle,  Misrelated,  342. 
Particular  terms,  222,  223. 
Particulars,  Development  of  theme 

by,  79-86. 
Pastoral,  The,  392. 
Personification,  386. 
Plain  statements,  222,  223. 
Plutarch,  49. 
Poetry,  390-402. 
Pope,  229. 


Preposition  at  end  of  sentence,  259. 

Prescott,  34. 

Pronouns,  327-329. 

Proofs,  Development  of  theme  by, 

117-119. 
Proportion,  269-280. 
Punctuation,  368-370. 

Quatrain,  400. 
QuiNCY,  176. 

Randolph,  213. 
Reference,  Words  of,  327-331. 
Relative,  Omission  of,  347. 
Repetition,   Development  of   theme 

by,  72-74. 
Repetitions  for  coherence,  328-331. 
Reproduction,  Material  for,  349-360. 
Rliyme,  400. 
Robertson,  306. 
Roosevelt,  104. 
RusKiN,  77,  99,  101,  154,  189. 

San  Francisco  Examiner,  327  note. 

Satire,  396. 

Saunders,  27. 

Scansion,  398. 

SCHMITZ,  119. 

SCHURZ,  51. 

Scott,  114,  250. 
Selection,  41,  42,  270. 
Sentence-groups,  1-3. 
Sentence-order,  257-263. 
Sentences,  Balanced,  188,  189 ;  Long, 

151-158 ;  Loose,  161-165 ;  Periodic, 

175-180;  Short,  134-145. 
Sentence-types,  Combination  of,  194- 

198. 
Seward,  218,  219  note. 
Shaler,  30. 

shall  and  loill.  Use  of,  208. 
Simile,  222,  223,  384. 
Slang,  207. 
Song,  The,  394. 
Sonnet,  The,  395,  402. 

SOUTHEY,  60. 

Specific  expressions,  222,  223. 

*  Squinting '  construction,  257,  258, 

342. 
Stanza,  400. 


406 


Oomposition- Rhetoric, 


Stedman,  287. 
Stevenson,  295,  297,  301. 
Subject,  Selection  of  a,  41,  42. 
Subjects  for  essays,  361-367. 
Subordination  of  parts,  291-294. 
Suspense,  178. 
Synecdoche,  384,  385. 

Taylor,  249. 

Tennyson,  303. 

Thackeray,  162. 

Thanet,  80. 

that,  who,  which,  209. 

their,  327  and  note. 

Theme  of  the  paragraph,  42-44. 

Thomas,  307. 

Thoreau,  88. 

Thucydides,  308. 

Title,  46,  47. 


Topic-sentence,  52-61. 

Tragedy,  393. 

Tyndall,  90. 

Types  of  discourse,  371-382. 

Unity,  314-319,  324,  325. 

Van  Dyke,  190. 
Verse,  390. 
Versification,  396-401. 

Walker,  75. 

Webster,  60,  76,  77,  139,  176,  177, 

196,  293,  329. 
Wellington,  261. 
which,  who,  that,  209. 
who,  which,  that,  209. 
will  and  shall,  Use  of,  208. 


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